Antonio Mcgowan
The human senses of taste and smell are essential to the enjoyment of food and plants. Breeders of horticultural crops have focused on developing new varieties that appeal to the human sense of sight, creating larger flowers, fruits, and vegetables with favorable appearances. However, this has sometimes come at the expense of fragrance and taste. In recent years, there has been a growing consumer interest in natural products, leading to an emphasis on using flavors and fragrances derived from natural sources. Plants contain essential oils and fragrances, with complex mixtures of alcohols, ketones, phenols, acids, ethers, aldehydes, esters, oxides, and sulfur compounds. These compounds contribute to the unique fragrance, color, and taste of each plant, creating a distinct experience for humans and other organisms, such as pollinators.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Fragrance | Benzaldehyde, benzoic alcohol, bergamot, β-caryophyllene, citronellol, geraniol, linalool, methyl benzoate, phenyl ethyl alcohol, β-cis-ocimene, furanones, pyrones, terpene hydrocarbons, sesquiterpenes, and more |
| Color | Flavonoids, anthocyanins, pigments |
| Taste | Terpenoids, esters, aldehydes, sulfur compounds, alcohols, carbonyls, ethers, acids, ketones, phenols, benzenoids, phenylacetaldehyde, 2-phenylethanol, ethanol, and more |
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What You'll Learn
- Plant pigments, such as chlorophyll, give plants their colour
- Fragrance comes from aromatic compounds, which are extracted for perfumes
- Taste is perceived by the tongue, but also the smell, texture, and temperature of food
- The colour of a plant is determined by which light wavelengths are reflected and absorbed
- Essential oils are used for flavouring food and drinks, as well as in perfumes
Plant pigments, such as chlorophyll, give plants their colour
Plants contain a vast reservoir of compounds with fragrant properties and proven biological traits. These fragrant substances are used in food to make them tastier and more attractive. The colour of a plant is determined by its pigments, which include chlorophyll, carotenoids, anthocyanins, and betalains. These pigments reflect light in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum, making them easily visible to insects that see in this range, such as pollinators.
Chlorophyll is the most common pigment in plants, with about three-quarters of the pigment in plants being chlorophyll. It is a large and expensive molecule to produce, as each ring contains four nitrogen atoms. Chlorophyll is produced in the chloroplasts in the photosynthetic tissues of leaves and is essential for photosynthesis, which is how plants convert light energy into chemical energy. There are two types of chlorophyll: chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b. Chlorophyll a is more abundant in plants because it absorbs light better than chlorophyll b, and plants do not need chlorophyll b to photosynthesize.
Carotenoids are red, orange, or yellow pigments found in many green vegetables and some flowers. They include xanthophylls, carotenes, and retinoids. Xanthophylls, such as lutein and zeaxanthin, are used as food colouring and have chemical structures similar to carotenes, but with additional oxygen molecules.
Anthocyanins and betalains are responsible for the orange, red, purple, and bluish hues in flowers, grasses, fruits, vegetables, and grains. Anthocyanins are water-soluble pigments produced in the cytoplasm of the coloured plant cell, while betalains are restricted to the suborder Chenopodiniae within the Caryophyllales. These pigments also play essential roles in critical biological processes in plants, including metabolism, light-harvesting in photosynthesis, regulation in development and defence, and protection from photo-oxidative damage.
In summary, plant pigments, such as chlorophyll, give plants their colour and play essential roles in various biological processes in plants. They also serve as essential cues for pollinators to find their hosts, and herbivorous and frugivorous animals rely on colour to identify edible tissues and judge the ripeness of fruits or vegetables.
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Fragrance comes from aromatic compounds, which are extracted for perfumes
Plants are one of the largest sources of fragrance compounds used in perfumes. Many parts of a plant can be used to extract aromatic compounds, including the leaf, flower, bark, stems, roots, rhizomes, bulbs, and seeds.
Flowers are a common source of fragrance compounds. Examples include rose, jasmine, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette, citrus blossoms, ylang-ylang blossoms, and unopened clove buds. Orchids are not commonly used, except in the case of vanilla orchids, which are pollinated to produce seed pods for use in perfumery.
Leaves and twigs can also be used to add a "green" aroma to perfumes. Examples include lavender leaf, patchouli, sage, violets, rosemary, and citrus leaves. Hay and tomato leaves are used to add a "green" smell to perfumes.
Bark is another source of fragrance compounds. Cinnamon and cascarilla are the most commonly used barks. The oil in sassafras root bark is used for its main element, safrole, which is a compound with a pleasant aroma that was historically used to flavour root beer, soft drinks, chewing gum, and toothpaste. However, due to its hepatocarcinogenic properties, safrole was banned as a food additive after 1960. It is now used in the synthesis of valuable compounds used in perfumery and pesticide formulations.
Roots, rhizomes, and bulbs are also used in perfumery. Examples include iris rhizomes, vetiver roots, and ginger rhizomes.
Seeds are another source of fragrance compounds. Commonly used seeds include tonka bean, carrot seed, coriander, caraway, cocoa, nutmeg, mace, cardamom, and anise.
In addition to plant-based sources, some fragrance compounds are derived from animal sources. For example, ambergris is a fragrant substance produced in the digestive system of sperm whales, while castoreum comes from the odorous sacs of the North American beaver.
The fragrance compounds obtained from these various plant and animal sources are then extracted and used in the creation of perfumes, often in combination with synthetic compounds to produce a wide range of scents.
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Taste is perceived by the tongue, but also the smell, texture, and temperature of food
Taste is a complex process that involves multiple senses and sensory organs. While the tongue plays a significant role in taste perception, other factors, such as smell, texture, and temperature also contribute to the overall tasting experience.
The tongue is an important organ for taste perception, as it contains many taste buds, which are responsible for detecting different tastes. The taste buds are located in the taste papillae, which are the small, wart-like bumps on the surface of the tongue. There are three types of taste papillae, with the most common being the fungiform papillae, which are spread all over the tongue and are particularly sensitive to taste. Each papilla contains several taste buds, which detect sweet, sour, salty, bitter, and savory tastes. The back of the tongue is especially sensitive to bitter tastes.
In addition to the tongue, there are also taste cells located in other parts of the oral cavity, such as the back of the throat, epiglottis, nasal cavity, and even the upper part of the food pipe. These taste cells work together with the brain to send signals to the nervous system, allowing us to perceive different tastes.
However, taste is not just limited to the tongue. Smell, for instance, plays a crucial role in taste perception. The flavor of food is a combination of its taste and smell. When we eat or drink something, odor molecules travel through the nasal cavity to the smell cells, which then relay the information to the mouth, creating a flavor sensation. This is known as olfactory referral or retronasal olfaction. For example, when tasting a strawberry jelly bean, one might detect sweetness and sourness, but without the sense of smell, the characteristic strawberry flavor will be missing.
The texture of food also influences taste perception. The way a food breaks down in the mouth and interacts with the tongue, teeth, and oral tissues can affect how we perceive its flavor. For instance, a food that is crunchy and crispy may be perceived as fresher and more flavorful than a soft and mushy food, even if they have the same taste. Similarly, a smooth and creamy texture can enhance the perception of richness and indulgence. Texture also affects the overall eating experience, as certain textures may be more or less enjoyable to eat, regardless of the flavor.
Lastly, temperature can also impact taste perception. Studies have shown that the perceived sweetness of sucrose, fructose, and glucose increases when the temperature of the solution is raised between 20° and 36°C. Similarly, the bitterness of caffeine was found to grow stronger at warmer temperatures. However, these effects are not limited to the temperature of the food or drink itself but also depend on the temperature of the tongue. Changing the temperature of the tongue can alter its tactile sensitivity and the way it perceives taste stimuli.
In conclusion, while the tongue is essential for taste perception, other factors such as smell, texture, and temperature also play a significant role in the overall tasting experience. By understanding the interplay between these senses, we can better appreciate the complex nature of taste and create more enjoyable and satisfying culinary experiences.
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The colour of a plant is determined by which light wavelengths are reflected and absorbed
Plants are made up of four main components: roots, stems, flowers, and leaves. The colour of a plant is determined by which light wavelengths are reflected and absorbed.
Visible light is part of the electromagnetic spectrum, which is a collection of all light. Light travels in waves, and thus it has a wavelength, which corresponds to the distance between the peaks of the waves. Visible light has wavelengths from 380 nanometres for purple, through to 730 nanometres for red. To put this into perspective, a human hair is 100,000 nanometres thick. Shorter wavelengths have a higher energy, and the frequency of the 'wave' is higher, so purple light has more energy than red light.
Plants absorb light to make sugars, providing the plant with energy and some other useful biochemical products which the plant requires to grow successfully. Light which can be seen by the human eye (the visible light spectrum) is made up of the rainbow of colours, stretching from purple through to red. Objects are perceived by humans as coloured when the object reflects light back to our eyes. So, plants look green because they absorb red light most efficiently, and the green light is reflected.
Leaves have the highest absorptance in the blue region, followed by red. Green light is the least absorbed by green leaves, which gives leaves their green appearance. The red end of the light spectrum excites the electrons in the leaves of the plants, and the light reflected (or unused) is made up of more wavelengths of the complementary (or opposite) colour, green.
Some plants attract pollinators by mimicking the scents and colours of neighbouring plants. The colour and scent of plants are also important in the food industry, where they are used to make food more attractive to consumers.
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Essential oils are used for flavouring food and drinks, as well as in perfumes
Essential oils are widely used for flavouring food and drinks, as well as in perfumes. They are complex compounds, often with natural bioactive properties, that can be used as alternatives to synthetic products in the food industry. For example, tea tree oil, lemon oil, clove oil, cinnamon oil, and thyme oil are all commonly used in food manufacturing to act as natural preservatives and increase the shelf life of products.
Essential oils are also used for their fragrance in perfumes. The most widely used essential oil in fragrances is bergamot, which is a subtle, complex scent that is fresh, bitter, fruity, and floral with a hint of spice. It is often reserved for powerful fragrances and is used in both men's and women's perfumes. Bergamot blends well with rose, jasmine, oak moss, patchouli, and labdanum. It is also used to contrast with amber and vanilla tones and to lighten heavy perfume formulations.
Other popular essential oils used in perfumes include bitter orange oil, which blends well with sweet orange, grapefruit, lavender, frankincense, geranium, and mandarin, among others. Mandarin is a bright, zesty scent that pairs well with bergamot and grapefruit. Grapefruit oil is known for its therapeutic effects, such as easing stress and anxiety, and has a pleasantly sweet, sharp, and tangy aroma. Popular middle notes in perfumes include lavender, lemongrass, clove, cinnamon, peppermint, and eucalyptus. These middle notes are often infused with spices and blended with other essential oils such as bergamot, black pepper, cedarwood, and chamomile.
Essential oils are also used to flavour food and drinks. For example, the major flavouring substances in peony, an important ornamental plant, are citronellol, geraniol, and linalool.
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Frequently asked questions
Pigments are the components that give plants their colours. There are three major pigments found in plants: chlorophylls, carotenoids, and flavonoids. Chlorophyll is the pigment that makes plants green and is essential for photosynthesis.
Plants contain a variety of fragrant compounds that are extracted for use in perfumes and other products. These fragrant compounds can be found in different parts of a plant, including flowers, leaves, bark, stem, roots, and fruit. Essential oils are often extracted to capture and preserve a plant's fragrance.
Taste is a combination of different sensations, including smell, texture, and temperature. The sense of smell enhances or dampens the tastes sensed by the tongue. The mouth and nasal cavities are connected, allowing the nose to pick up smells as food is chewed.
Plants have a sense of taste that is interconnected with their sense of smell. They use taste to sense danger, drought, and even to recognise relatives. Plants contain receptors for different soluble molecules, such as jasmonic acid, which is important in their defence responses.
Plants do not have a specific component that is solely responsible for taste. However, certain compounds in plants, such as glutamic acid and aspartic acid, can contribute to the umami or savoury taste. Additionally, plants contain a variety of volatile chemicals that are released when they are under attack, serving as a warning to other plants.
