Cologne's Catastrophe: Who Bombed Germany's Cultural Gem?

The German city of Cologne was attacked by the Allies during World War II, enduring 262 separate air raids by the Royal Air Force (RAF) and seeing a total of 34,711 long tons of bombs dropped on the city. The first bombing took place on May 12, 1940, and the city was subjected to the first-ever thousand-bomber raid on the night of May 30-31, 1942, as part of Operation Millennium. This raid saw 1,047 bombers take off, with 898 reaching and attacking Cologne, dropping a total of 1,455 tons of bombs and causing massive devastation. The city was targeted due to its status as a heavily industrialized site with many factories producing war supplies and a large railway network used for troop and weapon transportation. The last air raid on Cologne was carried out on March 2, 1945, and by the beginning of March 1945, most of the city had been destroyed.

The Thousand-Bomber Raid

The principal objective of the raid was to target Cologne's chemical and machine-tool industries. The striking force was made up of 598 twin-engine Vickers Wellingtons, 131 four-engine Handley Page Halifaxes, 88 Short Stirlings, 79 twin-engine Handley Page Hampdens, 73 four-engine Avro Lancasters, 46 twin-engine Avro Manchesters, and 28 Armstrong Whitworth Whitleys. The RAF pilots and crews nervously flew through German airspace, but the night fighters of the Luftwaffe steered clear of the mighty armada.

The first two Stirlings headed for their aiming point in the city’s old Neumarket section at 12:47 a.m. on May 31, 1942. Cologne, which had been the target of 1,346 RAF sorties in the previous nine months, was quickly alerted. An air-raid warning had sounded, most of the city’s 800,000 citizens had taken shelter, and fire-brigade squads were standing by. Five hundred anti-aircraft batteries surrounding the city fired at the vanguard formation, but the Stirlings and Wellingtons flew through the shell bursts and dropped their bombs. Fires broke out immediately and spread.

The bombers kept coming, threading their way through the searchlight beams and flak guns. The bombs fell, and so did 16 planes and their crews. Another four were shot down by enemy fighters. A total of 40 bombers were lost during the raid. Many areas of Cologne were ablaze, and the relentless formations of bombers dropped their deadly loads. When the main body of Harris’s force drew near, it appeared that the whole city was alight.

The raid was considered a success. A total of 898 bombers that reached and attacked Cologne dropped 1,500 tons of bombs, two-thirds of which were incendiaries. 3,330 non-residential buildings were destroyed, 2,090 seriously damaged, and 7,420 lightly damaged, making a total of 12,840 buildings. The only military installation damaged was the flak barracks. The devastation was recorded by Hermann Claasen from 1942 until the end of the war and presented in his 1947 exhibition and book, "Singing in the Furnace. Cologne – Remains of an Old City.".

The RAF lost 43 aircraft (German sources claimed 44), 3.9% of the 1,103 bombers sent on the raid. The success of the mission boosted the morale of the British people, who had endured two and a half years of bombing, hardships, and defeats. Churchill congratulated Air Marshal Harris and Bomber Command, and telegraphed President Franklin D. Roosevelt, saying, "I hope you were pleased with our mass attack on Cologne. There is plenty more to come.".

The first major raid

The raid was led by Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur "Bomber" Harris, who became head of RAF Bomber Command in February 1942. Harris believed that strategic bombing could be decisive in winning the war. He advocated for massive bombing of individual cities, arguing that it would deplete the available workers for industry, hurt morale, and possibly even effect regime change. Cologne was chosen as the target for the first thousand-bomber raid due to poor weather conditions over the original target, Hamburg.

The raid caused extensive damage to Cologne, with over 15,000 buildings destroyed or damaged, including 1,500 factories. The city's networks of electricity, gas, and water supplies, and transport networks were also severely disrupted. The official police report stated that there were 469 people killed and around 5,000 injured. The RAF lost 41 planes during the operation.

The bombing of Cologne was a major propaganda victory for the Allies and boosted the morale of the British people, who had endured two and a half years of bombing and hardships. It also silenced critics of the bombing campaign in Parliament and demonstrated to the War Cabinet that Bomber Command could make a vital contribution to victory.

The use of incendiary bombs

The Commander-in-Chief of RAF Bomber Command, Arthur Harris, believed that extensive and sustained area bombing, or carpet bombing, of Germany's major cities could bring about a surrender without the need for a land attack. Harris favoured the use of incendiary bombs, having witnessed their effectiveness during the London Blitz. He planned to assemble a force of 1,000 bombers to overwhelm German defences and cause maximum damage.

The RAF faced challenges in gathering 1,000 bombers for the mission. Harris had to borrow aircraft from other commands, and the final force included many training crews. The bombers took off in waves, flying in a tight formation known as a bomber stream to minimise the risk of collisions. They carried a combination of high-explosive bombs and incendiary bombs. The latter were designed to fall deep into the debris of buildings and set them ablaze.

The RAF bombers encountered German anti-aircraft guns and fighter planes but managed to reach Cologne. They dropped 1,455 tons of bombs on the city, with about two-thirds being incendiary bombs. The fires caused by the incendiary bombs overwhelmed Cologne's firefighters, and the city was soon ablaze. The official police report stated that 469 people were killed and around 5,000 injured. Over 15,000 buildings were destroyed or damaged, including factories, homes, and historical landmarks. The devastation caused by the incendiary bombs was so extensive that it took a week for the fires to die down sufficiently for RAF reconnaissance planes to assess the damage.

The impact on civilians

The impact of World War II on the civilians of Cologne was devastating. The German city was bombed in 262 separate air raids by the Allies, all carried out by the Royal Air Force (RAF). A total of 34,711 long tons (35,268 tonnes) of bombs were dropped on the city, and 20,000 civilians died during the war due to aerial bombardments. The first bombing took place on May 12, 1940, and the attack from the night of May 30 to 31, 1942, marked the first thousand-bomber raid.

The thousand-bomber raid, known as Operation Millennium, was expected to severely damage German morale and served as useful propaganda for the Allies. Cologne was chosen as the target due to poor weather conditions over the preferred city of Hamburg and its location within range of the GEE navigation system. The raid was meticulously planned and executed by Air Chief Marshal Sir Arthur Travers Harris, who believed in the need for long-range, strategic bombing of Germany. Harris's goal was to bring Hitler down with "an absolutely devastating, exterminating attack by very heavy bombers."

During the Operation Millennium raid, 868 aircraft bombed the main target, with 15 aircraft bombing other targets. A total of 1,478 tonnes (3.3 million pounds) of bombs were dropped, with two-thirds being incendiaries. This started two and a half thousand separate fires, with 1,700 classified as "large" by German fire brigades. The damage was extensive, with 3,330 non-residential buildings destroyed and 13,010 civilian homes destroyed or seriously damaged. An estimated 45,152 people were left homeless. The death toll from the raid was 474, with over 5,000 injured, though only 565 required hospital treatment.

The impact of the bombing extended beyond the immediate casualties and destruction. Konrad Adenauer, the mayor of Cologne, described the aftermath:

> "The task confronting me in a war-ravaged Cologne was a huge and extraordinarily difficult one. The extent of the damage suffered by the city in air raids and from the other effects of war was enormous. More than half of the houses and public buildings were totally destroyed, nearly all the others had suffered partial damage. Only 300 houses had escaped unscathed. The damage done to the city by the destruction of streets, tram rails, sewers, water pipes, gas pipes, electrical installations, and other public utilities, was no less widespread. It is hard to realize the threat this constituted to the health of the people. There was no gas, no water, no electric current, and no means of transport. The bridges across the Rhine had been destroyed. There were mountains of rubble in the streets. Everywhere there were gigantic areas of debris from bombed and shelled buildings. With its razed churches, many of them almost a thousand years old, its bombed-out cathedral, with the ruins of once beautiful bridges sticking up out of the Rhine, and the vast expanses of derelict houses, Cologne was a ghost city."

The aftermath

The bombing of Cologne, known as Operation Millennium, resulted in widespread devastation and loss of life. The raid targeted the city's chemical and machine-tool industries, and the resulting fires caused significant damage. Cologne's mayor, Konrad Adenauer, described the aftermath, detailing the extensive destruction of houses, public buildings, infrastructure, and utilities. More than half of the houses were completely destroyed, and only 300 escaped damage. The damage to utilities posed a severe threat to the health of the remaining residents.

The human toll of the attack was also severe. An estimated 45,152 people were left homeless, and the death toll reached 474, with over 5,000 injured. The injured were able to be treated, as only 565 required hospitalisation. The raid also impacted the city's industry, with 36 factories crippled and 70 others having their output halved. However, the overall effect on war production was limited, with only one month's worth of production lost.

The raid shocked the German High Command and even Hitler himself, who had previously dismissed the RAF as a minor threat. The success of Operation Millennium boosted the morale of the British and American public and demonstrated the effectiveness of large-scale bomber missions. It also validated the strategy of Air Marshal Harris, who had advocated for relentless nighttime raids on German industrial centres and cities. Harris' gamble paid off, and it paved the way for continued aerial bombardment of Nazi-occupied Europe.

The attack on Cologne was followed by retaliation from the Germans, who launched a raid on the historic city of Canterbury just one night later. However, the casualties in Canterbury were light, and the famous Anglican cathedral suffered only minor damage.

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