Seamus Hammond
The art of making perfume has evolved since ancient times, when fragrances were derived solely from natural sources such as flowers, spices, and woods. Today, perfumes are complex blends of natural and synthetic ingredients, carefully crafted to evoke emotions and memories. The process of creating a perfume involves extracting oils from natural ingredients, such as plants, fruits, and woods, as well as using synthetic chemicals to emulate scents that don't occur naturally. These scents are then blended with alcohol and fixatives, aged, and filtered to create the final product. While the specific ingredients and formulas vary across different perfumes, the aim is always to create a unique and captivating fragrance.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Ingredients | Natural: flowers, fruits, spices, woods, barks, plant and animal-based oils, alcohol, coal, tars, petrochemicals |
| Synthetic: chemicals, aldehydes, musk, polymers, PFAS, coumarin, violet, vanilla, citronellol, etc. | |
| Process | Extraction of oils, blending, aging, quality control, filtration |
| Fragrance Notes | Top, central/heart, base |
| Purpose | Boost self-esteem, enhance desirability, express individuality, alter moods, evoke memories |
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What You'll Learn
Natural vs artificial ingredients
The history of perfume dates back to ancient times, with records from the 2nd millennium BC describing the distillation of flowers, oils, and calamus to create fragrances. Ancient civilisations used aromatic flowers, wood, incense, and plant oils to infuse body lotions and water. The process of extracting oils from flowers through distillation was introduced by the Persian chemist Ibn Sina, revolutionising Western perfumery.
Today, perfumes are typically made from a combination of natural and artificial ingredients. Natural ingredients include various plants, fruits, woods, and even animal secretions. Natural oils, such as essential oils, absolute oils, and SCO2 extracts, are complex blends of different materials, featuring top, heart, and base notes. These natural oils are often manipulated and blended to create unique fragrances.
On the other hand, synthetic chemicals are used to emulate scents that do not occur naturally or do not produce essential oils. The introduction of synthetic chemicals in the mid-1800s marked the beginning of mass-marketed perfumes. The first synthetic perfume, nitrobenzene, was created from nitric acid and benzene, with almond-scented top notes. Synthetic fragrances have continued to evolve, with creations such as synthetic violet and vanilla, and compounds like citronellol, capturing a range of aromatic notes.
While synthetic ingredients have expanded the palette of perfumers, there is a growing awareness of the potential health and environmental risks associated with certain artificial chemicals. PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances) have been labelled as "forever chemicals" due to their persistence in the body and the environment. Natural perfumes, which typically avoid synthetic ingredients, are less likely to contain these hazardous substances.
Ultimately, both natural and artificial ingredients play a role in modern perfumery. Natural ingredients provide a rich and diverse array of scents, while synthetic ingredients offer unique and hard-to-find fragrances. However, with increasing concerns about ingredient safety, some fragrance companies are prioritising transparency and disclosing detailed information about their ingredients.
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Synthetic fragrances
The mass marketing of perfume began in the mid-1800s and coincided with the introduction of synthetic chemicals. The first synthetic perfume was made from nitric acid and benzene and was called nitrobenzene. It had top notes of almond and was often used in scented soaps.
Many popular and hard-to-find scents use synthetic ingredients. Synthetic musks and leathers, for example, allow for the same great scent while remaining vegan and cruelty-free. Synthetic chemicals are also used to emulate scents that do not occur in nature or do not produce essential oils. Synthetic fixatives, such as nitro and polycyclic musks, aromatics, and synthetic polymers, are used to extend a perfume's longevity by hindering evaporation. However, these synthetic fixatives have been linked to environmental issues, allergic reactions, and serious health risks.
Natural oils are typically made up of dozens or hundreds of different materials, with top, heart, and base notes. Synthetic fragrances, on the other hand, are often created in a lab and can be manipulated in various ways to achieve the desired scent. Synthetic fragrances may be designed to smell like natural materials, or they may be entirely new scents that do not exist in nature.
The use of synthetic chemicals in perfumery has allowed for greater creativity and innovation in fragrance creation. However, it is important to note that some synthetic ingredients, such as PFAS ("forever chemicals"), have been associated with health risks and environmental concerns.
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Traditional perfume categories
The classification of perfumes is neither completely objective nor definitive, and many fragrances contain aspects of different families. The traditional categories that emerged around 1900 are as follows:
Citrus
Citrus fragrances are the oldest family of perfumes, giving birth to lightweight eau de colognes. They are typically made using lemon, mandarin, bergamot, lime, tangerine, rosemary, and citrus essences. Citrus notes are fresh and uplifting and are often found in the top notes of a perfume.
Single Floral
Also known as soliflore in French, these fragrances are dominated by the scent of a particular flower, such as rose, carnation, iris, lily, jasmine, lilies, peonies, or orchid. Floral notes are often found in the middle notes of a perfume and are considered feminine and romantic.
Chypre
Chypre perfumes are more ambiguous, sharing affinities with both the Oriental and Woody families. They are characterised by a combination of citrus, floral, and woody notes, with a pronounced scent of cut grass, crushed green leaves, and cucumber.
Oriental
Oriental fragrances are warm, sweet, and sometimes spicy. They are considered a luxurious fragrance family and can be further divided into subgroups such as floral oriental and woody oriental. Oriental notes are often found in the base notes of a perfume and are rich and exotic.
Woody
Woody fragrances are warm, mysterious, and captivating, often favoured for evening wear. They use wood-based scents like cedarwood, sandalwood, vetiver, and amber. Woody fragrances can be further divided into mossy woods, with an earthy and sweet undertone, and dry woods, which have a smoky and leathery smell.
It is important to note that these traditional categories have evolved over time, and newer classification methods have been developed, such as the one created by perfume consultant Michael Edwards in 1983, which includes additional families like "Fresh" and "Aromatic Fougère".
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Notes and their combinations
Notes refer to the impressions that a layperson may get from a fragrance, and not necessarily to the ingredients used. Notes are combined to create a fragrance with top notes, heart or central notes, and base notes.
Top notes, also known as head notes, are the scents perceived immediately upon application of a perfume. They are usually fresh and light and tend to evaporate quickly. Common top notes include citrus, fruity, and floral scents, such as lemon, orange, jasmine, and rose.
Heart notes, or middle notes, emerge once the top notes evaporate. They form the core of the fragrance and are often rich, full-bodied, and complex. Heart notes can be floral, spicy, or fruity. Examples include rose, jasmine, and birch leaves.
Base notes are the foundation of the perfume and are typically deep, rich, and intense. They are usually derived from resins, woods, or musk and help to slow down the evaporation of the lighter notes, extending the longevity of the fragrance. Common base notes include vanilla, sandalwood, cedarwood, and musk.
Perfumers carefully combine these notes to create unique fragrances. For example, a perfumer might use a fresh top note like lemon, a floral heart note like jasmine, and a musky base note to create a complex, layered fragrance.
It is important to note that the creation of a perfume is an artistic process, and the combinations of notes are carefully crafted to evoke specific emotions, memories, and ambiances. The notes work together to create a harmonious scent that is more than the sum of its parts.
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History of perfume
The word "perfume" comes from the Latin "perfumare", which means "to smoke through". The art of making perfumes, or perfumery, began in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley Civilisation, and possibly Ancient China. One of the world's first recorded chemists is considered to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker mentioned in a cuneiform tablet from the 2nd millennium BCE in Mesopotamia. She distilled flowers, oils, and calamus with other aromatics, then filtered and put them back in the still several times.
In ancient times, people used herbs and spices such as almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, and bergamot, as well as flowers. The ancient Egyptians are credited with being the first civilisation to use perfume, starting over 5,000 years ago. Ancient Egyptians used perfumes in religious rituals, believing the odours connected humans with the gods and pleased the deities. Perfume was also used to mask the smell of the embalming process. Egyptians made perfume by distilling natural ingredients with non-scented oils. The most popular scents were floral, woody, and fruity.
The ancient Persians ruled the perfume trade for hundreds of years and are credited as the inventors of non-oil-based perfume. During the Sassanid period, the production of fragrances and infused waters was quite prevalent. Persian kings often had their own ""signature scents" that their companions and relatives were not allowed to use.
In ancient China, people scented their places of worship and homes as they believed perfumes could enhance their purity and protect them from disease. The use of fragrances was also important in Greek and Roman cultures. The ancient Romans extensively used myrrh and frankincense to make perfumes, oils, and balms for hair and skin. Perfumes were also a status symbol in ancient Rome and were used by both men and women.
During the Middle Ages, perfumes were used primarily for religious purposes, by the Catholic Church. Doctors also used perfumes to mask the smell of decay during the Black Plague. During the Renaissance, perfumes became popular again as a luxury item and a symbol of wealth.
In the 16th century, perfume became extremely popular in France, especially among the upper classes and nobles. In the 18th century, the invention of eau de Cologne helped the perfume industry continue to grow. With the arrival of eau de Cologne, 18th-century France began using perfume for a broad range of purposes. They used it in their bathwater, in poultices, and enemas, and consumed it in wine or drizzled on a sugar lump.
In the 19th century, modern perfumery began with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin and coumarin, which allowed for the composition of perfumes with new smells. In the 20th century, clothing designers began marketing their own lines of scents, and today, celebrity perfumes are common.
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Frequently asked questions
Perfume is made from a variety of natural and synthetic ingredients. Natural ingredients include essential oils extracted from plants, fruits, flowers, spices, barks, and animal products. Synthetic ingredients include chemicals such as aldehydes, aromatics, and alcohols.
Common natural ingredients used in perfumery include:
- Flowers and blossoms: rose, jasmine, osmanthus, plumeria, narcissus, ylang-ylang, and more.
- Fruits: citrus, berries, and vanilla.
- Barks: cinnamon and cascara.
- Animal products: musk, honey, and ambergris.
Common synthetic ingredients used in perfumery include:
- Aldehydes: organic compounds with fruity, soapy, metallic, or citrus aromas.
- Aromatics: synthetic versions of natural scents, such as synthetic violet and vanilla.
- Alcohols: ethyl alcohol, benzyl alcohol, and citronellol.
- Synthetic fixatives: nitro and polycyclic musks, synthetic polymers, and PFAS.
