Katrina Rosales
The use of perfume has a long history, with humans using it to modify their body odour for most of their existence. Perfume was first used in the form of incense by the Mesopotamians around 4000 years ago. The ancient Egyptians also used incense, as well as scented oils and perfumes, which they burned during religious rituals. The ancient Greeks created the first liquid perfume, which usually consisted of mixtures of oil and crushed herbs or petals. The development of distillation by the Arabs made perfume manufacture more viable, and the Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, which is the procedure most commonly used today.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Ancient civilizations | Egypt, Mesopotamia, Persia, Rome, China, Palestine, Greece, Orient, Far East |
| Ancient uses | Religious rituals, anointing the body, embalming, purification, medicinal purposes, anti-aging, beauty enhancement, scented baths |
| Ancient ingredients | Flowers, blossoms, barks, wood, roots, leaves, seeds, spices, herbs, scented oils, water, calamus, aromatics, cinnamon, myrrh, frankincense, henna, juniper, gum, resin, incense |
| Ancient methods | Burning, distillation, expression (pressing ingredients to extract oils), solvent extraction, steam distillation, enfleurage, maceration |
| Modern ingredients | Natural: plants, fruits, woods, alcohol, coal, tars, petrochemicals, animal secretions; Synthetic: aliphatic aldehydes, nitric acid, benzene, coumarin, violet, vanilla, citronellol |
| Modern methods | Aging, extraction, choosing scents, solvent extraction, steam distillation, expression, enfleurage, maceration |
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What You'll Learn
The history of perfume
The ancient Egyptians held fragrance in high regard, with Egyptian mythology noting the god Nefertem as the lord of perfume. Queen Cleopatra and Queen Hatshepsut were said to use fragrances to scent their bodies, quarters, and baths, even taking perfume with them to the grave. The Egyptians made perfume by distilling natural ingredients with non-scented oils, with the most popular scents being floral, woody, and fruity. They also burned incense made from spices like cinnamon and myrrh, and extracted oils from plants.
The ancient Persians also played a significant role in the history of perfume, ruling the perfume trade for hundreds of years and being credited as the inventors of non-oil-based perfumes. During the Sassanid period, the production of infused waters and fragrances was prevalent. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by distillation, which remains the most common method today.
Perfume-making spread from ancient Greece to Rome and then to the Orient and Far East. It eventually reached Europe through the Crusaders in the 13th century, who returned from Palestine with perfume samples. In the 15th century, the cultivation of flowers for their perfume essence grew into a major industry in southern France, and by the late 19th century, the term "perfume" became known. The first fragrance labelled as a "parfum" extract was Guerlain's Jicky in 1889.
Today, perfumes are often made by extracting scented oils from natural ingredients, including plants, fruits, woods, and even animal secretions. Synthetic chemicals are also commonly used to emulate scents that do not occur naturally or do not produce essential oils. The process of creating fragrances has become a combination of art and science, with modern perfumers building upon the ancient traditions of perfume-making.
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Natural ingredients
The use of natural ingredients in perfume-making dates back to ancient civilisations, with the ancient Greeks using various types of oils as the base of their perfumes. These included Egyptian or Syrian balanos oil, and olive oil derived from "raw" and "coarse" olives. The ancient Greeks would also use powdered perfume on their bedding, which would cling to their skin and give them a long-lasting pleasant odour. They believed that perfumes had medicinal properties due to their abundance of herbs and spices.
The Persian Muslim doctor and chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by means of distillation, which is the procedure most commonly used today. He first experimented with the rose, and rose water became popular for its delicate fragrance.
Natural perfumes are made with the essence of plants, flowers, fruits, trees and leaves. Natural ingredients used in perfumes include flowers, grasses, spices, fruit, wood, roots, resins, balsams, leaves, gums, and animal secretions, like musk and ambergis. Natural fixatives can also be derived from plants.
When making a natural perfume, essential oils are used, as well as fragrance oils such as vanilla extract. The top, middle and base notes of a fragrance are blended with ethyl alcohol and water, and aged in tanks for several weeks. The base notes include scents such as patchouli, vetiver, frankincense, cedarwood and sandalwood; the middle notes include coriander, palmarosa, marjoram, basil, rosemary, rose geranium and lavender; and the top notes include lemon, orange, grapefruit, lime, bergamot, spearmint and peppermint.
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Extraction methods
There are several methods of extracting fragrant compounds from raw materials, including distillation, solvent extraction, expression, sieving, and enfleurage. The choice of method depends on the type of ingredient used, the desired fragrance, and the intended quality of the final product.
Distillation
Distillation is a traditional method of extracting fragrant compounds from raw materials. It involves passing steam from boiling water through the raw material for 60–105 minutes, which releases its volatile fragrant compounds. The resulting condensate, containing both water and aromatics, is settled in a Florentine flask. The fragrant oils can then be easily separated from the water as they float to the top. This method is commonly used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems, producing hydrosols like rose water, lavender water, and orange blossom water.
Solvent Extraction
Organic solvent extraction is the most common and economically important technique in the modern perfume industry. Raw materials are submerged and agitated in a solvent like hexane or dimethyl ether, which dissolves the desired aromatic compounds. The extract is then subjected to vacuum processing to remove the solvent for reuse. This method can be used to extract fragrant compounds from woody and fibrous plant materials, as well as all aromatics from animal sources. It is particularly useful for odorants that are too volatile for distillation or easily denatured by heat.
Expression
Expression is a mechanical extraction process that began in the 19th century in Sicily and is primarily used for citrus fruits. It involves applying high pressure with a press to extract the essential oil from the small glands in the peel, or "zest," of the fruit. This process does not alter the smell of the basic product, preserving its fresh and airy fragrance.
Enfleurage
Enfleurage is an older method of extraction that has been practiced since antiquity and was commonly used when distillation was not possible due to the denaturing of fragrant compounds through high heat. This technique involves absorbing the odour of aromatic materials into wax or fat, which is then often extracted with alcohol. While this method is costly and time-consuming, it is suitable for fragile plants and flowers.
Supercritical CO2 Extraction
This method uses supercritical fluids, such as CO2, as a solvent to extract essential oils from raw materials. When in its supercritical state (between liquid and gas), CO2 penetrates the material to extract volatile oils, resulting in a scent that is closer to nature. This process is more expensive than traditional distillation but allows for the extraction of ingredients that were previously difficult to extract through conventional methods.
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Synthetic perfumes
However, some people may prefer natural perfumes over synthetic ones for ethical or sustainability reasons. Natural perfumes capture the immense complexity and beauty of the natural world, connecting the wearer to nature. The high molecular complexity of natural perfumes enables their constant evolution and spectacular depth, as the high molecule count allows for much more molecular interaction.
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Blending and ageing
Blending is a crucial step in the art of perfumery, allowing for the creation of harmonious fragrances that delight the senses. When blending a perfume, it is essential to understand the different notes that make up the fragrance. These notes unfold over time, with top notes being the initial scent that captivates the wearer, followed by the middle or heart notes, and finally, the base notes that linger and create a lasting impression. The process of blending involves combining various scents from neighbouring families to create a harmony in your perfume.
When mixing a perfume, it is recommended to start with the base notes, followed by the middle notes, and finally, the top notes. This ensures that the delicate balance of the fragrance is maintained. Base notes are the foundation of the perfume and include scents such as patchouli, vetiver, frankincense, cedarwood, and sandalwood. Middle notes add depth and complexity to the fragrance, with examples such as coriander, palmarosa, marjoram, lavender, and rose geranium. Top notes provide the initial burst of scent and are often chosen for their freshness or citrusy character, including lemon, orange, grapefruit, and bergamot.
The blending process is an art that requires experimentation and a refined sense of smell. Perfumers may use essential oils, fragrance oils, infused oils, or even flavour extracts to create unique blends. One popular method for creating personalised perfumes is to use vodka as a base and add essential oils to create the desired scent. This allows individuals to create their own signature fragrances that reflect their personality and preferences.
Ageing is a critical step in the creation of fine perfumes. After the blending process, the perfume is left undisturbed in a cool, dark area for several months to a year. During this time, the alcohol and essential oils bond permanently, and the different notes meld together to create a harmonious fragrance. Ageing transforms the individual scents into a unified composition, enhancing the depth and complexity of the perfume.
The ageing process also ensures the quality and longevity of the perfume. An expert perfumer tests the scent after the ageing period, ensuring that the fragrance has intensified and matured. Additional blending or adjustments may be made at this stage to perfect the final product. The aged perfume mixture is then cooled and filtered before being filled into bottles, ready to be enjoyed by those who appreciate the art of fragrance.
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Frequently asked questions
Perfumes are made by extracting scented oils from natural ingredients, including plants, fruits, woods, flowers, seeds, barks, roots, leaves, and even animal secretions. Synthetic chemicals are also used to emulate scents that do not occur in nature or do not produce essential oils.
The process of creating a fragrance involves a combination of art and science. The first step is to gather plant and animal-based perfume ingredients, such as fruits and various plants. Next, the scented oils are extracted from these ingredients through solvent extraction, steam distillation, expression, enfleurage, or maceration. The extracted oils are then blended with alcohol to create a perfume concentrate. The concentrate is diluted in alcohol and allowed to mature for up to a month, followed by aging for several months to a year in a cool, dark area. During the aging process, the different notes of the perfume blend together, and an expert is called in to test the scent. Adjustments, such as additional blending, can then be made before the final product is cooled, filtered, and bottled.
The first evidence of perfume-making began in ancient Egypt and Mesopotamia and was later adopted by the Persians and Romans. Early perfumes were made using natural materials and distilled flowers, oils, and aromatics, which were then filtered and put back into the still several times. The Persians are credited with inventing non-oil-based perfumes and the distillation process that used alcohol as a base instead of oil. Ancient civilizations often used perfumes for religious ceremonies or to anoint their bodies, while the Egyptians also used perfumes to scent their baths and bodies, and even took perfume with them to the grave. Today, perfumes are increasingly made using synthetic chemicals to emulate scents and require less quality control.
