Seamus Hammond
Ancient perfumes were made using rare and exotic materials like ambergris, civet, and oud, which were valued for their unique and strong scents. These fragrances were part of rituals, beauty, and commerce in ancient Egypt, Greece, and across the Roman Empire. Recreating ancient perfume recipes involves historians and chemists studying old texts to understand original formulas. They use methods from the past to bring these ancient scents back to life, such as cold enfleurage and hot maceration to extract the essence from plants and rare materials. Ancient perfumes like Kyphi, a special Egyptian incense, and the legendary musk are particularly interesting to study as they were used in royal courts and religious ceremonies.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Base notes | Animal-derived scents such as natural musk, civet, and ambergris. Common alternatives include frankincense, myrrh, and labdanum. |
| Middle notes | Rose, cinnamon, benzoin (styrax), and calamus (sweet flag or sweet rush). |
| Carrier oil | Olive oil. |
| Other ingredients | Saffron, lemongrass, lotus, marjoram, honey, wine, raisins, pine, juniper berries, rockrose, Syrian bulrushes, Somalian ben-nuts. |
| Tools | Mortar and pestle. |
| Techniques | Cold enfleurage, hot maceration. |
| Regions | Ancient Egypt, Persia, India, Greece, Rome, China, Medieval Europe (Italy and France). |
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What You'll Learn
Base notes: frankincense, myrrh, labdanum, musk, civet, and ambergris
Base notes are the scents that linger the longest and are usually the most intense. In the ancient world, animal-derived scents were the most precious base notes. Natural musk, for instance, is almost impossible to come by today, and civet and ambergris are quite rare.
Frankincense, myrrh, and labdanum are good alternatives, as they were also used in ancient perfumes and are more readily available. All three are resins, or plant sap. Frankincense and myrrh can be purchased in their raw form of small nuggets, which you can grind and add to olive oil. Labdanum, on the other hand, is a viscous, sticky, tarlike substance in its resin form. It is thick, black, and sticky even as an essential oil.
When making your own perfume, use only one of the three and only a little of it—4 to 5 nuggets or 2 to 3 drops of the essential oils in 2 ounces of olive oil. You can also add other scents to complement the base note. For example, rose and cinnamon were a favourite combination in ancient perfumery. Rose petals can be added directly to the olive oil mixture—no more than 1 to 3 petals—along with ground cinnamon. This combination creates a sweet and spicy scent. Frankincense will make it spicier, myrrh will bring out the warmth of the rose, and labdanum will make the cinnamon pop.
Another popular combination in ancient times was myrrh, rose, styrax (or benzoin), and marjoram, which resulted in a warm, sweet perfume. For a spicier scent, frankincense and cinnamon could be mixed with a little sweet rush, then topped off with anise and coriander.
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Middle notes: rose, cinnamon, benzoin, calamus, and styrax
For the middle notes of your ancient perfume, you can use some scents that are still well-known in modern perfumery: rose, cinnamon, benzoin (more commonly known as styrax in the ancient world), and calamus (which was called by various names in ancient texts, including sweet flag or sweet rush).
Rose and cinnamon were a popular combination for the heart of a perfume. To use rose, add no more than 1 to 3 petals to your olive oil mixture, as too many petals will overwhelm your final mixture. You can add cinnamon by breaking up cinnamon sticks into small pieces or by shaking ground cinnamon into your oil. This combination of rose and cinnamon creates a sweetly spicy scent, which can be altered by the base note you choose. For example, cinnamon's spiciness is enhanced by frankincense's piney smell, while myrrh's gentle warmth allows the rose to shine through.
Styrax, a deep, vanilla-like scent, was another popular choice in ancient perfumery. Like the base notes mentioned previously, styrax is a tree resin. Calamus, another middle note option, was an ingredient in telinum, a fashionable perfume in the time of the comic poet Menander (around 300 BC).
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Ancient Egyptian perfume-making
In ancient Egypt, perfume was part of ritual, beauty, and commerce. The ancient Egyptians were famous for their perfumes and were the first civilization to record the composition of the oils and essences used to create the scents worn by royalty.
The ancient Egyptians did not master distillation, but they became experts in the technique of enfleurage. They kept the principles of their technique secret, passing the knowledge down orally to prevent the disclosure of their manufacturing expertise.
Visual sources show that the ancient Egyptians depicted perfume-making. For example, a limestone relief from around 600 BCE depicts bare-breasted women harvesting lilies in a garden. Other women wrap the lilies in cloth and twist the textile around two sticks above a large vessel, likely to squeeze out the oil or water used to extract the flower's scent.
Written sources describing ancient Egyptian perfume-making are vague. However, some writers, such as Theophrastus (Greek, c. 370–285 BC) in his book On Odors and Pliny the Elder (Roman, AD 23–79) in his Natural History, include lists of ingredients for perfumes, as well as some discussion of techniques and tools. Tablets from various cities in ancient Greece and Egypt document oil deliveries to be processed by perfumers.
The ancient Egyptians used a wide variety of ingredients to make perfumes, including animal-derived scents, resins, plant sap, aromatic herbs, leaves, seeds, woods, gums, and flowers. Natural musk, civet, and ambergris were among the most precious base notes, but they were rare. Common alternatives included frankincense, myrrh, and labdanum, which were often purchased in raw form as small nuggets and ground into olive oil. Middle notes included well-known scents such as rose, cinnamon, benzoin (styrax), and calamus (sweet flag or sweet rush). Rose petals and cinnamon sticks could be added directly to the olive oil mixture, while ground cinnamon could be shaken into the oil.
Complex perfumed mixtures such as kyphi were also created, with ingredients including raisins, frankincense, myrrh, pine, honey, wine, and juniper berries ground in a mortar, soaked in wine, and/or heated to produce a thick, pungently sweet paste. Kyphi was applied and consumed to combat lung and liver disease or burned as incense to produce a smoky fragrance.
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Recreating ancient perfumes
Ancient perfumes were made using rare and exotic materials like ambergris, civet, and oud, which were valued for their unique and strong scents. These ingredients, derived from animals and plants, were considered precious. However, due to regulations and ethical concerns, some substances like ambergris and civet are now restricted or banned, making it difficult to fully reproduce the original scents.
To recreate ancient perfumes, historians and chemists refer to various sources, such as ancient texts, scrolls, and tablets, which describe fragrances, ingredients, and techniques in detail. Visual sources, such as Egyptian reliefs and Roman frescoes, also provide insights into the perfume-making process. Additionally, archaeologists have discovered recipes and artefacts related to ancient perfumes, like the ones found in Egypt, Greece, and across the Roman Empire, where perfume was an integral part of rituals, beauty, and commerce.
One example of an ancient perfume is kyphi, an Egyptian incense with 16 ingredients, including raisins, frankincense, myrrh, pine, honey, wine, and juniper berries. These ingredients were ground, soaked in wine, and heated to create a thick, sweet paste that was applied to the body or burned as incense. Middle notes in ancient perfumes often included familiar scents like rose, cinnamon, benzoin (styrax), and calamus. Base notes, the most precious element, were typically animal-derived, such as natural musk, civet, and ambergris. However, due to their rarity, alternatives like frankincense, myrrh, and labdanum can be used.
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Ancient Chinese perfumery
The ancient Chinese were pioneers of aromatic products and used them frequently in their daily lives. Perfume was introduced to Eastern culture by the Chinese, who used many unusual scented products. For example, the ink with which they wrote was also perfumed. The ancient Chinese enjoyed using perfume as a daily grooming ritual, but that was not its primary use. They believed that scented products elevated their quality of life, so they surrounded themselves with aromatic items inside their homes.
Perfume also played an important role in places of worship. It was often used to honour gods and goddesses. The Chinese viewed perfume as a product that could disinfect and purify any space. As a result, they often used it in the hope that it would keep diseases at bay. Oriental fragrances usually include a heavy dose of herbs and spices, making them suitable for medicinal needs. While the ancient Chinese liked the notion of anointing themselves with perfume, they took a more spiritual and utilitarian approach when it came to its usage. Before the Chinese started creating multi-ingredient intricate perfumes, they used simple perfumes with natural accords that were widely loved. Modern Oriental perfumes are heavily inspired by these ancient creations.
Nectar was commonly used by Chinese women who wanted to smell good in public. It was created with ingredients sourced from various flowers like lotus, lily, and chrysanthemum. Unlike incense, which was considered suitable for both men and women, nectar was always classified as a women's perfume. Agarwood or Chen Xiang was an important ingredient in ancient Chinese perfume history. With a rich history, this precious perfume was commonly used during religious rituals. It was known to aid the process of meditation. The Chinese also bought products made with agarwood because they were naturally aromatic.
The emergence of Buddhism accelerated China's evolving incense culture with the introduction of meditative practices in temples and monasteries. Burning incense became synonymous with respecting deities and purifying the temple space. The Buddhist religion brought many innovations that were gradually introduced into Chinese secular life. The incense time-keeping device was probably the most remarkable; it was first employed in monasteries as the graduated candle monks used at their vigils to tell the time of night.
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Frequently asked questions
Ancient perfumes were made using rare and exotic materials like ambergris, civet, and oud, which were valued for their unique and strong scents. Other ingredients included frankincense, myrrh, pine, honey, wine, juniper berries, and resins such as sandalwood, aloeswood, camphor, and styrax. Animal-derived scents were the most precious base notes.
Ancient methods like cold enfleurage and hot maceration were used to extract the essence from plants and rare materials. Archaeologists have found recipes and artifacts related to ancient perfumes, such as tablets from Knossos, Crete, documenting oil deliveries to be processed by perfumers. Visual sources, such as Egyptian limestone reliefs and Roman frescoes, also provide information on perfume-making techniques.
Perfume played a significant role in ancient societies, including ancient Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire. It was used in religious rituals, signified social status, and was part of everyday life. Perfume was also used to mask body odor and as protection against unpleasant smells, believed to be a barrier against disease.
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