Lance Carson
Roses are a cornerstone of perfumery and are said to feature in at least 75% of modern feminine fragrances and at least 10% of all men's perfumes. The process of making rose perfume is both an art and a science, requiring precision and patience. The main methods of extracting fragrance from roses include steam distillation, solvent extraction, and CO2 extraction. The most commonly used roses in perfumery are the Turkish rose, the Damask rose (or Damascus rose), and Rosa Centifolia (the 'hundred-leafed rose'), which is grown in Grasse, France, and is considered to produce the highest-quality rose absolute.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Types of roses used for perfume | Rosa Centifolia, Rosa Damascena, Rosa Gallica Officinalis, Red Rose of Lancaster, Rose de Resht, Fragrant Cloud, Damascus Rose, Cabbage Rose, Rose de Mai |
| Rose-growing regions | France, Turkey, Bulgaria, Morocco, Grasse, Kazanlak, Crimea, Persian gardens |
| Rose-picking time | Before 10 a.m. |
| Rose oil extraction methods | Steam distillation, solvent extraction, CO2 extraction |
| Rose perfume characteristics | Feminine, floral, powdery, woody, musky, fruity, romantic |
| Rose therapeutic properties | Helps restore balance to mind and body, reduces anxiety |
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What You'll Learn
The history of rose perfume
The rose has been a cornerstone of perfumery for centuries. Celebrated by ancient Persians, Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, it was a prominent ingredient in early unguents and skincare rituals. In Roman times, rosewater—the water in which roses have been steeped—was used to refresh guests and was sprayed by fountains all around town. During lavish banquets, particularly under Emperor Nero, rose petals were scattered extravagantly, filling the air with perfume. Cleopatra is said to have welcomed Mark Antony to her boudoir with a bed strewn with roses, and the floors of Babylonian palaces are said to have been covered in soft rose petals.
In the 7th century, the Arabs knew the principle of distillation and were able to get rose oil and rosewater from flowers. In the 12th and 13th centuries, Crusaders brought back Damask rose from the Middle East because of its lush fragrance. In the 18th century, rosewater production through distillation became widespread in Morocco, thanks to the techniques of Arab and Berber communities.
The two types of roses used in perfumery are the Rosa Centifolia and the Rosa Damascena. The former, also known as the "Cabbage Rose" or "Rose de Mai", was developed by the Dutch in the late 16th century and is grown in Grasse in the south of France. It is considered to have a more delicate scent and is extracted using solvents to obtain an absolute. The latter, also known as the Damascus Rose, is produced in Turkey and Bulgaria and is the only known rose to exist as an essence. It is captured through a process of distillation, with the flowers being handpicked at dawn and quickly processed to avoid fermentation.
Today, the major rose-producing countries include France, Bulgaria, Turkey, Iran, and Morocco. Around 70% of the world's rose oil comes from Bulgaria, with Turkey being the second-largest producer. The rose continues to be a popular ingredient in perfumes, featuring in at least 75% of modern feminine fragrances and at least 10% of all men's perfumes.
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Rose varieties used in perfumes
Of the 5,000 known botanical varieties of roses, only two are used in perfumery: the Rosa Centifolia and the Rosa Damascena.
The Rosa Centifolia, also known as the hundred-leafed rose or cabbage rose, is grown in Grasse in the south of France and is considered to have a delicate scent. It is the variety that generally produces the highest-quality rose absolute, which is obtained through solvent extraction or CO2 extraction.
The Rosa Damascena, on the other hand, is produced in Turkey and Bulgaria and is the only rose known to exist as an essence. It is considered to be among the richest and most velvety essences available, with a powdery, soft, and subtly tannic scent. This essence is captured through the distillation of flowers handpicked at dawn.
Other varieties of roses that are mentioned in fragrances include the Taif rose, Bulgarian rose, Rose de Mai, Red Rose of Lancaster, and old roses such as the Rosa Gallica Officinalis. However, it is difficult to distinguish the unique scent of each rose species in fragrances, and the mention of specific rose varieties may be more for marketing purposes to make the perfume seem more luxurious, unique, exotic, or refined.
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Extraction methods
The extraction of rose perfume is a complex process requiring both art and science. The two most commonly used roses in perfumery are the Rosa Centifolia and the Rosa Damascena. The former is considered to have a more "delicate" scent and is extracted using solvents to obtain an absolute, while the latter is the only known rose to exist as an essence and is captured through distillation.
Steam Distillation
The most traditional and widely used method for extracting rose essential oil is steam distillation. Freshly harvested rose petals are placed in a large still, and steam is passed through them, releasing their aromatic compounds. The steam carrying the rose essence is then condensed into a liquid. The essential oil is then separated from the rose hydrosol and collected for perfumery. This process can be repeated to create a richer, more concentrated fragrance through a process called cohobation, where the regenerated phenylethyl alcohol is attached to the oil.
Solvent Extraction
For a more concentrated fragrance, solvent extraction is used. This process involves washing the petals with a solvent, which dissolves the fragrant compounds and waxes. The solution is then filtered, and the solvent is removed, resulting in a waxy substance called concrete. The concrete is then washed with alcohol to extract the purest form of rose absolute.
CO2 Extraction
CO2 extraction is another method used to obtain rose absolute. This process captures the fragrant liquid that results from steeping roses, which is then discarded.
Ecological Considerations
The sustainable and ethical sourcing of rose petals is crucial for the future of perfumery. Many companies now prioritize eco-friendly farming and fair trade practices to protect the environment and the livelihoods of rose farmers.
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Rose oil production
Rose oil is an essential oil that is extracted from the petals of various types of rose. The two major species of rose cultivated for rose oil production are Rosa Damascena (Damask rose) and Rosa Centifolia (Cabbage rose). These species are favoured for their high oil content and superior fragrance.
Roses require specific growing conditions to flourish, needing well-drained soil, ample sunlight, and a moderate climate. The regions known for producing the finest rose essential oil include Bulgaria, Turkey, and Morocco, where the climate and soil conditions are optimal for rose cultivation.
The timing of the harvest is crucial in determining the quality of the essential oil. Roses are typically harvested in the early morning when the petals contain the highest concentration of aromatic compounds. The rose-picker's task is to pick the dew-drenched blooms before 10 a.m. at the latest, when the sun evaporates their exquisite fragrance. The flowers are then distilled the same day.
There are three main methods of extracting the oil from the plant material:
- Steam distillation, which produces an essential oil called rose otto or attar of roses.
- Solvent extraction, which results in an absolute called rose absolute.
- Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction, yielding a concrete that may be marketed as a concrete, absolute, or CO2 extract.
Steam distillation involves passing steam through the rose petals, heating them and causing the release of essential oils. The heat breaks down the cell walls of the petals, allowing the aromatic compounds to evaporate. The steam carrying the essential oil vapour is then directed into a condenser, where it cools and reverts to liquid form. The condensed mixture of water and essential oil is collected, and the two are separated.
Solvent extraction involves agitating the flowers in a vat with a solvent such as hexane or ethanol, which draws out the aroma compounds and other soluble substances. The solvent is then removed through evaporation, leaving behind a waxy mass called a concrete. This is then mixed with alcohol to dissolve the aromatic constituents, and the alcohol is evaporated, leaving behind the finished absolute.
Supercritical carbon dioxide extraction takes place at low temperatures and extracts a wide range of compounds, leaving the aromatics unaltered by heat. This method is expensive, which is reflected in the price of the essential oils obtained.
Rose oil is a luxurious and highly sought-after product, cherished for its aroma and therapeutic benefits. Its production is intricate and labour-intensive, and its history dates back to ancient civilizations including the Egyptians, Greeks, and Romans, who valued it for its fragrance, medicinal properties, and use in religious ceremonies.
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The future of rose perfume
Additionally, the future of rose perfume may involve continued innovation in fragrance extraction methods. While steam distillation and solvent extraction are the traditional methods for obtaining rose essential oil, modern technologies such as CO2 extraction and gas chromatography can help identify and isolate the complex compounds that contribute to the unique aroma of different rose varieties. This could lead to the development of new, more sustainable methods for creating rose fragrances that capture the richness and complexity of natural roses.
Furthermore, as consumers seek more natural and organic beauty products, there may be a growing preference for rose perfumes made with essential oils and natural fixatives like glycerin or sandalwood oil. This could drive the creation of new, all-natural rose fragrances that appeal to health-conscious consumers.
Lastly, the symbolism and romantic associations of roses are timeless, and rose perfumes will likely continue to be sought after for their ability to evoke emotions and create a sense of luxury and elegance. As such, perfumers will continue to innovate and experiment with rose fragrances, ensuring that the "Queen of Flowers" remains a cornerstone of perfumery for years to come.
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Frequently asked questions
Only two types of roses out of 5,000 known botanical varieties are used in perfumery: the Rosa Centifolia and the Rosa Damascena. The Rosa Centifolia is considered to have a more "delicate" scent, while the Rosa Damascena is the only known rose to exist as an essence and is thought to be among the richest, most velvety essences available.
The main methods of extracting fragrance from roses include steam distillation and solvent extraction. Steam distillation involves passing steam through rose petals, releasing their aromatic compounds. The steam carrying the rose essence is then condensed into a liquid, and the essential oil is separated from the water. Solvent extraction is used for a richer, more concentrated fragrance. Petals are washed with a solvent, which dissolves the fragrant compounds and waxes. The solution is filtered and the solvent is removed, leaving behind a waxy substance called concrete. The concrete is then washed with alcohol to extract the purest form of rose absolute.
Roses for perfume are grown in France, Turkey, Bulgaria, Morocco, and Iran. The Rosa Centifolia is grown in Grasse in the south of France and is considered to produce the highest-quality rose absolute. Around 70% of the world's rose oil comes from Bulgaria, with significant production also coming from Turkey.
Rose oil is a general tonic that helps restore balance to the mind and body by removing inhibitions and combating anxiety.
