Antonio Mcgowan
The history of perfume spans thousands of years, with the earliest remnants of perfume-making practices found in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Cyprus. The English word perfume is derived from the Latin per fume, meaning through smoke. The use of perfume was first introduced by the ancient Egyptians, followed by the ancient Chinese, Indians, Israelites, Carthaginians, Arabs, Greeks, and Romans. Ancient perfumes were made using oils as the carrier medium, whereas modern perfumes typically use alcohol. Ancient cultures used herbs, spices, flowers, woods, seeds, roots, saps, gums, and animal-derived scents as base notes. The production and use of perfume continued to evolve through the Islamic Golden Age, the Renaissance, and the modern era, with the development of new techniques, ingredients, and purposes.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Earliest use of perfume | Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, and Cyprus |
| First recorded perfume maker | Tapputi-Belatekallim, a woman chemist from Mesopotamia |
| First fragrance labelled "parfum" | Guerlain's Jicky in 1889 |
| Ancient uses of perfume | Holy rituals, burials, status symbol, medicine, beauty, commerce |
| Ancient perfume ingredients | Oils, animal-derived scents, resins, plant sap, flowers, herbs, spices |
| Ancient perfume carriers | Oils; alcohol was introduced in modern times |
| Ancient perfume containers | Vessels made from lead, glass, or alabaster |
| Peak of perfume use in England | Reigns of Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I |
| Modern uses of perfume | Fashion accessory, layering of fragrances for different intensities |
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What You'll Learn
The use of oils as a base
In ancient times, oils were used as the carrier medium for perfumes. Olive oil, for instance, was used as a base for resins such as frankincense and myrrh. Animal-derived scents were the most precious base notes of the ancient world, and natural musk, civet, and ambergris were commonly used.
Today, perfume oils continue to be a popular alternative to traditional alcohol-based perfumes. Perfume oils are free from alcohol and possess a stronger scent. They are crafted by capturing aromatic compounds from various botanicals, fruits, spices, and other natural substances.
When creating a perfume oil, one must first decide on the desired scent profile. Citrus scents, for example, make a good head note as they are potent and assertive, while light and airy florals work well as heart notes, and woodsy scents have longevity and work well as the base.
Once the desired scent profile has been established, one must select the appropriate essential oils. For a citrus scent, one might choose bergamot, lemon, or grapefruit. For a floral scent, options include rose, geranium, iris, and jasmine. And for a woodsy scent, cedarwood, labdanum, and sandalwood are popular choices.
After selecting the essential oils, one must then determine the number of drops of each oil to use. A common ratio for a 5ml bottle of perfume oil is 12 drops of the base note, 5 drops of the heart note, and 3 drops of the head note. However, this may vary depending on the strength and smell of the oils, and experimentation is key.
Finally, the essential oils are combined in a bottle and shaken gently to mix. The perfume oil can then be applied to the skin, with common application points including the wrists, neck, behind the ears, and inner elbows. These areas emit heat and help release the fragrance slowly throughout the day.
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The role of ancient civilisations
Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Chinese, Indians, Israelites, Carthaginians, and Arabs all played a part in the development of perfume. The English word "perfume" is derived from the Latin "per fume," meaning "through smoke," indicating the role of fragrance in ancient rituals and religious practices. Indeed, perfume was used in ancient Egypt, Greece, and across the Roman Empire as part of ritual, beauty, and commerce.
Ancient texts and archaeological evidence show that perfume-making equipment and workshops were abundant in ancient Persia, where they experimented with different scents and distillation processes. The ancient Greeks and Romans carefully documented their perfume-making processes, allowing for the recreation of several Greco-Roman fragrances today. The Romans, in particular, used large quantities of imported frankincense and myrrh for public bathhouses, body care items, and to scent their temples.
The ancient Chinese, Indians, and medieval Europeans believed that fragrance purified the air and prevented diseases, and perfumes were used medicinally to treat infections and even mental illnesses. In Islamic cultures, perfume usage has been documented as far back as the 6th century, and it is considered a religious duty. The Persians and Arabs helped systematise the production of perfume, with the Arabian polymath Ibn Sina, or Avicenna, attributed with developing the method of distillation that led to the creation of liquid perfume.
The use of perfume in ancient times was not limited to religious or medicinal purposes but was also a symbol of status and superiority, used by royalty, aristocrats, and the upper classes. In England, during the reigns of Henry VIII and Queen Elizabeth I, perfume use peaked, with all public places being scented during Queen Elizabeth's rule. Similarly, in 18th-century France, the court of Louis XV used perfume extensively, influencing the fragrance's popularity among the nobility and upper classes.
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The influence of religion
Ancient Greeks believed perfumes had medicinal and healing properties, with Hippocrates prescribing fragrant oils for various ailments. The Greeks also categorised perfumes based on the time of day and occasion, a practice that has persisted to the present.
In ancient Rome, scented ointments made from flower petals, spices, and other natural ingredients were used in religious ceremonies. The Latin term for perfume, "per fumum" ("from smoke"), reflects the practice of priests throwing scented ointments onto braziers to create smoke that reached the gods. The Romans also used perfumes lavishly, scenting not only themselves but also their homes, public baths, and horses.
During the Middle Ages, with the rise of Christianity, the use of perfume declined as it was condemned by religious leaders as a breach of moral standards and a symbol of pagan traditions. However, it was still used for its medicinal properties, with monks cultivating aromatics like lavender, rosemary, and sage in abbey gardens.
The Renaissance marked a shift, with perfumed gloves becoming popular in France, and the establishment of the guild of glove and perfume-makers in 1656. The French court, particularly under Louis XIV, was known for its obsession with fragrances, with Grasse becoming the heart of the perfume world.
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The impact of trade
Trade has played a significant role in the history of perfume, influencing its production, distribution, and consumption across various civilisations. One of the earliest known instances of perfume trade can be traced back to the Sumerian civilisation in Mesopotamia, who distributed perfumes, particularly to the Ancient Egyptians, who were avid consumers and producers of fragrances.
The ancient world, including civilisations such as Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire, valued perfume for its ritualistic, aesthetic, and commercial purposes. The Romans, for instance, imported perfumes from various regions, making it an expensive luxury for the Roman nobles. The fall of the Roman Empire did not diminish the value of perfume, as it continued to play a significant role in the Middle Ages.
During the medieval period, the Islamic world, particularly the Persians, played a crucial role in the trade and production of perfumes. With their extensive trade networks, Islamic cultures had access to a diverse range of spices, resins, herbs, precious woods, and animal-derived fragrance materials such as ambergris and musk. They cultivated flowers and herbs, including roses, jasmine, bitter orange, and other citrus trees, which are still key ingredients in modern perfumery. Islamic scholars and scientists also made significant contributions by developing methods for extracting fragrances through steam distillation.
Perfume made its way to Europe through trade with the Muslim world, particularly via Andalusia and the Crusades during the 11th and 12th centuries. By the Renaissance period, perfume was widely used by royalty and the wealthy to mask body odours resulting from the sanitary practices of the time. France became a significant centre of perfume design and trade, with the Grasse region specialising in the cultivation of aromatic plants for the perfume industry. The French court of Louis XIV was even nicknamed "la cour parfumée" (the perfumed court) due to their excessive use of fragrances.
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The use of natural ingredients
Archaeological evidence shows that oils were used as the carrier medium for perfumes in ancient times. Olive oil was a popular choice, with resins and plant saps like frankincense, myrrh, and labdanum melting into the oil to lend their scent. Other natural ingredients used in ancient perfumes included spices such as cinnamon and cassia, as well as myrrh, burnt resin or lacquer, and musk.
The ancient Greeks and Romans also stored their perfumes in vessels made from lead, glass, or phials of alabaster. These materials were chosen for their "cold and close texture", which helped to reduce evaporation and prevent the escape of odours, thus prolonging the shelf life of perfumes.
Today, natural perfumes can be made at home using essential oils and a base such as rubbing alcohol, jojoba, or coconut oil. Popular essential oils for natural perfumes include floral scents like lavender and peony, sensual scents like amber and vanilla, and refreshing citrus fruits like lime, orange, or grapefruit.
When making a natural perfume, it's important to consider the type of application desired. Oil-based perfumes are better suited for rollerball jars, as they can clog spray bottles. Alcohol-based perfumes, on the other hand, can be used in spray form. High-proof alcohol is preferred as it has little to no scent and will combine well with the oils.
Natural perfumes offer a unique fragrance that is free from synthetic ingredients, providing therapeutic benefits for the body, mind, and emotions.
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Frequently asked questions
Perfume was used for a variety of purposes in the past. It was used in rituals, to scent baths and bodies, and even for medicinal purposes. It was also used to distinguish social status, with only the upper classes having access to perfumed products due to their expense.
Ancient Egypt, Greece, and the Roman Empire all used perfume in their daily lives. Perfume was also used in ancient China, India, Palestine, Persia, and the Middle East.
Ancient perfumes were made from a variety of ingredients, including herbs, spices, flowers, woods, resins, animal-derived scents, and plant saps. Some specific ingredients include almond, coriander, myrtle, conifer resin, and bergamot, saffron, frankincense and myrrh, and cinnamon.
The ancient Greeks and Romans carefully documented their perfume-making processes, which often involved extracting fragrances from diverse sources. Steam distillation was a common method used to extract essential oils from plants. The ancient Egyptians were also early innovators in glass production, using glass bottles to store their perfumes.
Perfume-making evolved with the influence of different cultures and advancements in chemistry. Islamic cultures contributed significantly to the development of Middle Eastern perfumery by refining extraction methods and introducing new raw materials. The rise of modern chemistry in the 19th century also laid the foundation for modern perfumery, with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds occurring in the late 19th century.
