Antonio Mcgowan
Incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. Its use dates back to biblical times and ancient civilisations such as Egypt, Babylon, Israel, Greece, and Rome. The ancient Egyptians used incense for practical purposes, such as counteracting bad odours, as well as mystical purposes, such as deterring demons and appeasing the gods. Incense was also prominent in religious rituals in ancient Egypt, Babylon, and Israel, and it continues to be used in Hindu, Buddhist, and Shinto rituals today. The origin of incense can also be traced to Indian culture and spirituality, with Indian incense being the most common in the world. In Japan, incense was initially used for medical purposes, with fragrant mixtures being created for personal enjoyment. Today, incense is used for a variety of purposes, including aesthetics, religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonies.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Origin | Tree resin found in parts of Africa, the Middle East, India, and Oman |
| History | Used in ancient Egypt, Israel, Babylon, China, Japan, Greece, Rome, and early Christian church |
| Purpose | Religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, ceremonies, deodorant, insect repellent, ritual offerings, domestic offerings, fumigation |
| Types | Direct-burning, Indirect-burning, Dhoop, Takimono |
| Forms | Stick, cone, block, dough, powder |
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What You'll Learn
Ancient Egypt
Incense has been used in many different cultures and religions throughout history, including in Ancient Egypt. The use of incense can be traced back to ancient Egypt, where it was used by priests for fumigating ceremonies and tombs. The ancient Egyptians burned incense for both practical and mystical purposes. For example, incense was burnt to mask bad odours, but it was also believed to ward off evil demons and please the gods.
The burning of incense was central to the worship of the gods in Ancient Egypt. Large quantities of incense were burnt daily in temples across Egypt. Different gods were associated with different types of incense. For example, Hathor was strongly associated with myrrh. Incense was also used for specific ceremonies, and certain types of incense were burnt at different times of the day. According to Plutarch, the Ancient Egyptians burned frankincense in the morning, myrrh at midday, and Kyphi (Kapet) in the evening.
Kapet, or Kyphi, was one of the most popular varieties of incense and was used in Ancient Egypt since the Old Kingdom. It was believed to heal snake bites and cure bad breath and asthma. A recipe for this incense was recorded in the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1500 BCE). Other types of incense used in Ancient Egypt include Ihmut incense, sonter incense, and green incense.
The manufacture of Kyphi involves blending and boiling the ingredients in sequence, and some of the ingredients used included lotus, lemongrass, rose, and saffron. However, some ingredients remain obscure, and scholars do not agree on the identity of some of the plants used.
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Oman on the Arabian Peninsula
Oman, a country on the Arabian Peninsula, is known for its production and trade of incense. The use of incense in the region dates back thousands of years, with frankincense being the most prominent type of incense produced and traded. The hardy Boswellia sacra tree, from which frankincense resin is derived, thrives in the southern province of Dhofar in Oman. The value of frankincense resin is determined by its colour, clump size, and oil concentration, with the most valuable grade, known as hojari, coming from the Dhofar Mountains.
The trade of frankincense played a significant role in the early history of Oman and the Arabian Peninsula, bringing immense wealth to Omani ports and cities and facilitating cultural exchange between diverse civilizations. The ancient Incense Road, which operated from 500 BC until 100 AD, was a vital trade route for frankincense, connecting Oman to Mesopotamia, Pharaonic Egypt, Ancient Greece, Rome, and various kingdoms. The incense caravans that travelled through the Great Arabian Desert were an integral part of this trade network.
In Omani culture, frankincense is used for various purposes. It is burned daily to welcome guests, perfume homes and clothes, and is an essential ingredient in Oriental fragrances. It is also used in medicines and teas to promote healthy digestion and skin. Additionally, frankincense holds symbolic significance in Oman, often serving as a status symbol and a mark of respect.
The city of Salalah in Oman is particularly renowned for its incense trade, with various resins available in different colours, such as red, white, amber, and bluish-green. The smoke from burning incense creates a unique balsamic, resinous, and terpene scent, contributing to the distinctive fragrance of Omani cities.
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India
The basic ingredients of Indian incense sticks, also known as "agarbatti" or "joss sticks," include bamboo sticks, paste made from charcoal dust or sawdust, and adhesives made from the bark of Litsea glutinosa and other trees. The perfume ingredients are traditionally a masala or spice mix of ground ingredients, although synthetic perfumes and essential oils are also commonly used today. The method of coating a bamboo stick with incense paste, which originated in India in the 19th century, has largely replaced the traditional method of rolling, extruding, or shaping incense without a bamboo core.
The art of incense-making is spread across India, with about 5,000 incense companies employing approximately 200,000 women who hand-roll raw sticks and apply their brand of perfume. The state of Karnataka, particularly Mysore and Bangalore, is the leading producer of scented agarbatti, while Gaya, Bihar was the manufacturing hub of unscented agarbatti. In recent years, Maharashtra, Gaya, and Gujarat have also seen significant growth in incense production, dominating the western India market.
Incense sticks are an essential part of everyday Hindu prayer rituals, where they are used as one of the five offerings to deities, along with flowers, lamps, food, and perfumes. The specific fragrances used in incense, such as sandalwood, rose water, and herbs, are believed to purify the mind and enhance spiritual experiences. The use of incense in India is a revered art form that intricately blends tradition, natural ingredients, and Ayurvedic wisdom, reflecting the country's rich cultural and spiritual heritage.
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Japan
The use of incense in Japan dates back to the 6th century CE and the Asuka period, with the introduction of Buddhism and its associated rituals and ceremonies. The first recorded appearance of incense in Japan was in 595 CE, during the reign of Empress Suiko. According to legend, a log of agarwood washed up on the shore of Awaji Island, and its pleasing fragrance was presented to Prince Shōtoku and Empress Suiko. This agarwood was imported from China via Korea, and from this point onwards, incense became an integral part of Japanese culture.
Incense was initially used in Buddhist rituals and ceremonies, with fragrant woods such as agarwood and sandalwood burned alongside blends of herbs to create a desired atmosphere in temples. The custom of incense use spread from Buddhist temples to the Imperial Court, where its use became more refined, with raw materials kneaded and mixed into balls or sticks rather than simply burning chunks of wood. By the end of the Nara period (710-794 CE), incense had become popular among the Japanese aristocracy, who used it to perfume their homes, clothing, and hair as a sign of refinement and good taste.
During the Heian period (794-1185 CE), incense continued to grow in popularity, as depicted in the Japanese epic "The Tale of Genji". The use of incense became more casual during this period, spreading beyond religious ceremonies and prayer offerings. Incense games, in which participants tried to guess the type of incense by scent alone, also became popular among the aristocracy, who hosted incense parties. These games often involved the use of elaborate incense utensils, such as lacquer boxes, burners, and holders, which became highly sought-after art objects in their own right.
The Kamakura period (1185-1333 CE) saw the continued spread of incense use to samurai warriors, who employed it to scent their armour and for relaxation between battles. The Muromachi period (1336-1573 CE) witnessed the development of Kōdō, the formalised Japanese incense ceremony, which involves using incense within a structure of codified conduct. By the mid-Edo period, incense had become accessible to the wealthy merchant class, further increasing its popularity and leading to its inclusion in art, poetry, and fashion.
Today, incense remains an important aspect of Japanese culture, used in religious ceremonies, meditation practices, and as an element of Japanese aesthetics. Traditional incense companies such as Kungyokudo, founded in 1594, and Baieido, founded in 1657, continue to supply high-quality Japanese incense worldwide. Incense is typically made using fragrant woods such as agarwood and sandalwood, as well as resins and essential oils, with new blends and forms constantly being developed to cater to different tastes and purposes.
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China
Incense has been used in China for thousands of years, dating back to the Neolithic period. The character for incense or aromatics was first recorded during the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BCE), and the practice of burning spices began during the Spring and Autumn period. The earliest documented use of incense was in ancient China, and it has played an integral role in the spiritual and physical lives of the Chinese people throughout history.
The first known Chinese aromatics book was written approximately 2,500 years ago during the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). During this time, the variety of new spices introduced to China through the Silk Road trading routes led to the rapid development of spice burning and incense creation. People experimented with different spices, discovering their scents and effects when burned, and gradually developed incense recipes that combined different spices to create a harmonious and pleasant scent experience. Incense was also used in traditional Chinese medicine and to supplement treatment with TCM (Traditional Chinese Medicine).
The art of burning incense in China evolved into a sophisticated practice known as xiangdao (香道). This involves using various paraphernalia and utensils, such as tongs, spatulas, and special moulds to create ideograms with incense powder, all placed on a small table. Incense was burned to aromatize rooms and clothing, as well as for religious and ceremonial purposes, including Buddhist worship and ancestor veneration.
The introduction of Buddhism to China brought with it calibrated incense sticks and incense clocks, which were first recorded by the poet Yu Jianwu (487–551) in the following lines: "By burning incense we know the o'clock of the night, With graduated candles we confirm the tally of the watches." The use of these incense timekeeping devices spread from Buddhist monasteries into secular society.
The Ming dynasty saw the writing of the archetypal Chinese incense book, Xiang Sheng (《香乘》), which is still considered the ultimate guide for Chinese incense creators. From the middle of the Ming dynasty through to the Qing, the techniques for making incense sticks matured, and incense sticks became the dominant form of burning incense.
Today, China remains a major producer of incense, with over 400 types of incense ingredients and over 100 incense blends commonly used.
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Frequently asked questions
The use of incense dates back to ancient Egypt, where it was used in religious ceremonies and to counteract bad odours.
Incense-bearing trees were imported from the Arabian and Somali coasts to ancient Egypt.
The incense used by the ancient Israelites was a mixture of frankincense, storax, onycha, galbanum, and salt.
Incense is commonly used today in India, China, and Japan, as well as in Christian and Buddhist ceremonies.
