Anisha Riggs
The ancient Romans primarily obtained incense through trade with Southern Arabia, where the most common type of incense, frankincense, was grown. Frankincense was highly valued in Roman culture and was used in religious rituals, as well as for its therapeutic properties. The discovery of frankincense in Roman-era burials as far west as Britain highlights its pervasive use. Other types of incense used in ancient Rome included myrrh, saffron, cinnamon, and cassia.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Use | Religious worship, aromatherapy, meditation, and ceremonies |
| Composition | Organic material, aromatic plant materials, essential oils, tree products (bark, seeds, oils, resins), myrrh |
| Burning method | Indirect (non-combustible), direct (combustible) |
| Religious significance | Used in Roman polytheism, a means of communication with the gods |
| Ritual use | Sacrificial offerings, placed on burning charcoal, used in funerals |
| Trade | Imported from Southern Arabia, traded far and wide in the Imperial age |
| Health effects | Psychoactive, potentially anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory, anti-arthritic, antioxidant, mild pain-killing |
| Etymology | Latin "incendere", meaning "to burn" |
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What You'll Learn
Frankincense was imported from Southern Arabia
Frankincense, also known as olibanum, is an aromatic resin used in incense and perfumes. It is obtained from trees of the genus Boswellia in the family Burseraceae. The English word "frankincense" comes from the Old French "franc encens", meaning "noble incense" or "high-quality incense".
Frankincense was highly valued in ancient Rome, where it was used in religious rituals and offerings. It was originally cultivated and harvested in the Arabian Peninsula, specifically in the sparse forests at the southern tip of modern-day Yemen and Oman, where Boswellia trees grow among rocks and sand. The domestication of the camel around 1500–1200 BC allowed the incense trade to grow, with camels acting as the perfect bearers of heavy loads of fragrant incense across the harsh desert conditions of the Arabian Peninsula.
By 1000 BC, frankincense was known and valued in Babylon, Egypt, Rome, Greece, and China. The movement of frankincense along the Incense Road was one of the most important trading activities of the ancient world, connecting kingdoms of southern Arabia with India, the Mediterranean, and the Silk Road. Greek historian Herodotus wrote that frankincense was harvested from trees in southern Arabia, and Pliny the Elder also noted that its cultivation was originally limited to the Arabian Peninsula.
In Rome, frankincense was a prized commodity, and it was imported from controlled supplies in the Middle East. The Roman emperor Nero is said to have burned an entire year's harvest of frankincense upon the death of his favourite concubine or wife.
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It was a key part of Roman religious rituals
The use of incense was deeply entrenched in Roman polytheism, with the Romans using it in a variety of religious rituals. The Etruscans, who had a profound impact on Roman religion, are known to have used incense since at least as early as the 6th century BCE. Homer, circa 850 BCE, also mentioned offerings of incense being made to Aphrodite at her temple in Cyprus.
Incense was used in Roman religious rituals as an offering to the Gods. The fragrant smoke from burning incense was thought to carry prayers to the Gods. Plutarch tells the story of Alexander the Great being scolded by his tutor Leonidas for throwing handfuls of frankincense into the fire during a sacrifice. Leonidas told Alexander that he must conquer the land where frankincense came from before he could be so lavish with his offerings. When Alexander conquered Gaza, a major distribution centre of incense, he sent Leonidas a gift of 500 talents' weight of frankincense and a hundred of myrrh, with a note that he should be more generous with his offerings.
The Romans mainly traded for incense by sea, with over a million kilograms of frankincense imported into the Roman Empire from the Arabian Peninsula every year. Frankincense was highly prized by the Romans, with fraudulent merchants attempting to pass off fake incense. Frankincense was also used in medicine for cattle.
The use of incense declined with the rise of Christianity and the banning of Pagan rites in the late 4th century. However, incense continued to be used in Christian rituals, with the smoke interpreted as a symbol of the prayer of the faithful rising to heaven.
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It was also used for its medicinal properties
The use of incense for its medicinal properties has been observed in various ancient cultures. In traditional Chinese medicine, moxa tablets, which are disks of powdered mugwort, are used for moxibustion, a treatment that involves the application of heat rather than the use of fragrance.
Similarly, the practice of using incense as a healing tool was also assimilated into the religious practices of ancient Rome. Frankincense and myrrh were the two most popular forms of incense in the Roman world, and scientific studies suggest that these substances have a wide range of healing effects. For example, inhaling frankincense can have a calming and cheering psychoactive effect, and it has been hypothesised that it may alleviate anxiety and depression. Frankincense has also been found to possess anti-inflammatory and anti-arthritic properties and can potentially stop the spread of cancer cells. Myrrh, on the other hand, acts as a powerful antioxidant and has mild pain-killing properties due to its opioid-like function.
The use of incense in ancient Rome can be traced back to the influence of the Etruscans, who had a significant impact on Roman religion. The Etruscans are known to have used incense as early as the 6th century BCE, and this practice was adopted by the Romans. The Romans primarily obtained their incense from the Arabian Peninsula, where frankincense bushes occur naturally. The discovery of frankincense in Roman-era burials even in distant regions like Britain highlights the pervasive nature of its use in Roman society.
The decline in the use of incense in ancient Rome coincided with the rise of Christianity and the subsequent banning of Pagan rites in the late 4th century. However, the medicinal and therapeutic properties of incense, particularly frankincense and myrrh, as recognised by the ancient Romans, continue to be explored and validated through modern scientific studies.
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Rome's trade routes allowed access to incense
The use of incense was deeply entrenched in Roman polytheism, where it was used in ritual offerings. Frankincense and myrrh were the two most popular forms of incense in the Roman world. The aromatic resin was extracted from trees in the genus Boswellia. The most common types of incense are tree products, particularly the aromatic barks and seeds of certain trees and the oils and resins that can be extracted from them.
By the imperial age, Rome's trading ties stretched far and wide, and exotic goods from the east were added to the list of popular offerings. The Etruscans, who had a profound impact on Roman religion, are known to have used incense since at least as early as the 6th century BCE. In nearby Greece, Homer (circa 850 BCE) mentioned offerings of incense being made to Aphrodite at her temple in Cyprus.
The Romans used incense for religious purposes, burning it as an offering to the gods. It was also used for its pleasant aroma, which was believed to counteract or obscure malodorous products of human habitation.
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The Etruscans influenced Roman incense use
The use of incense was deeply entrenched in Roman polytheism, with the ritual offering of incense smoke acting as a moment of connection between the human and the celestial deities. The Etruscans, who had a profound impact on Roman religion, are known to have used incense since at least as early as the 6th century BCE.
In Roman polytheism, the use of incense in ritual offerings was a key practice. The Etruscans, an ancient civilisation that inhabited the regions of modern-day Tuscany, northern Lazio, and Umbria in Italy, had a significant influence on Roman religious practices. The Romans adopted and further developed the Etruscan use of incense, integrating it into their own religious rituals and cultural practices.
The Etruscans are known to have used incense in their religious ceremonies and rituals. This influence was adopted and built upon by the Romans, who also viewed incense as a sacred offering to their gods. The use of incense by the Etruscans and its subsequent adoption by the Romans highlights the importance of incense in ancient Mediterranean cultures and its role in religious and spiritual practices.
The Romans obtained incense through trade with various regions, including the Arabian Peninsula, North Africa, and Southern Europe. Frankincense, the most common type of incense in the ancient Mediterranean, was highly valued by the Romans for its religious and cultural significance. It was considered a precious commodity, often offered as a sacrificial gift to the gods.
In addition to frankincense, the Romans also used other types of incense such as myrrh, cinnamon, and nard. These imported incenses added to the cultural and religious significance of incense in Roman society, with its use becoming deeply intertwined with their spiritual beliefs and practices. The influence of the Etruscans on Roman incense use demonstrates the cultural exchange and syncretism that occurred in ancient Mediterranean societies, shaping the religious and cultural landscape of Rome.
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Frequently asked questions
The Greeks and Romans imported frankincense from the Arabian peninsula.
Frankincense is a resin procured from boswellia trees. It was the most common type of incense used in the ancient Mediterranean.
Incense was primarily used in fumigations for cult worship. It was also used in Roman polytheism as a ritual offering.
