Heidi Norton
The use of incense has been prevalent in various ancient civilisations, including Egypt, Mesopotamia, Babylon, Greece, and Rome. One of the oldest textual sources on incense is the Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda and the Rigveda. In ancient Egypt, incense was used in religious ceremonies and as offerings to deities, with evidence of incense burners dating back to the 5th dynasty (24th-25th century BC). The ancient Egyptians crafted cones and sticks using aromatic resins, herbs, spices, and essential oils, which they believed helped connect them to higher entities, spirits, and gods.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Oldest textual source on incense | Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda and the Rigveda |
| Earliest known use | China, around 2000 BCE |
| First written about | Blended Incense Recipes《和香方》, by Fan Ye in the Northern & Southern Dynasty, around 430 CE |
| Earliest evidence of use of incense sticks | 2000 BCE |
| Materials used | Tree bark, roots, resins, oils |
| Scents | Sandalwood, Jasmine, Lavender, Oudh, Sambrani |
| Types | Indirect-burning, Direct-burning |
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What You'll Learn
Incense in ancient civilisations
Incense has been used by humans for thousands of years, with the earliest known usage in China. The character for incense or aromatics was recorded as far back as the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BCE). The first known Chinese book about aromatics was written around 430 CE by a historian and politician, Fan Ye. By the Tang Dynasty (c. 600-900 CE), incense had become a luxury good, deeply entrenched in palace and upper-class life. The ancient Chinese used incense in religious ceremonies and to ward off evil spirits. It was also believed to be a connector to otherworldly forces and was used as a drug, spice, and perfume.
In ancient India, incense was referenced in the Vedic texts, the sacred scriptures of Hinduism, composed between 1500 and 500 BCE. These texts mention burning aromatic substances as offerings to deities during religious ceremonies. The use of incense in India is deeply rooted in spiritual and ritualistic traditions, with skilled artisans perfecting the blending of fragrances to create distinct and culturally significant scents. Incense sticks, or "agarbatti" in Hindi, are the main form of incense used in the country.
Incense was also prevalent in ancient Egypt, where it was used in religious ceremonies, fumigating ceremonies, and as offerings to deities. The Egyptians crafted intricate cones and sticks using aromatic resins, herbs, and spices. Incense was imported into Egypt from the Arabian and Somali coasts, and its use was depicted in Egyptian murals and on Oracle bones.
The ancient Israelites used incense in their liturgy, with a mixture of frankincense, storax, onycha, galbanum, and salt as a preservative. Incense was also used extensively by the Babylonians, Greeks, and Romans for prayer, divination, and in temples and homes as part of their daily routines. With the rise of Christianity in Europe, incense became an integral part of Christian worship, symbolizing prayers rising to heaven.
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Incense in ancient Egypt
Incense, an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt, has been used for centuries across the world for aesthetic reasons, religious worship, aromatherapy, and ceremonial purposes. The oldest textual source on incense is the Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda and the Rigveda.
Incense was prominent in ancient Egypt, where it was used in religious rituals and mortuary rites. The use of incense in ancient Egypt can be traced back to the Old Kingdom, with the use of Kapet, or Kyphi, as it was known to the Greeks, being one of the most popular varieties. According to Plutarch, the Ancient Egyptians burned frankincense in the morning, myrrh at midday, and Kyphi in the evening. Certain gods were associated with specific types of incense, such as Hathor, who was strongly associated with myrrh. The burning of incense was a daily celebration of fragrance for the ancient Egyptians, and large quantities were burned daily in temples throughout Egypt.
The manufacture of Kyphi involved blending and boiling ingredients in a specific sequence, with some ingredients remaining obscure. Saffron strands were also added to the incense. Kyphi was also used for medicinal purposes, believed to heal snake bites and cure bad breath and asthma. A recipe for this incense was recorded in the Ebers Papyrus (c. 1500 BCE). Other types of incense used in ancient Egypt include Ihmut incense, sonter incense, and green incense (thought to be based on galbanum from Persia). White incense, probably based on frankincense, and "inflammable incense" were recorded in a list of offerings during the reign of Ramesses III.
Incense ingredients in ancient Egypt were either ground and thrown on hot coals or mixed with dried fruit, such as raisins or dates, and formed into small pellets to be burned. Some ingredients were homegrown, while others were imported, such as aromatic woods and spices from Punt, a region mentioned in Egyptian records.
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Incense in ancient China
Incense has been used in China for thousands of years, with the practice becoming prominent from the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The Chinese word for incense, 'xiang' (香), also means "fragrance, scent, aroma, perfume, and spice". The use of incense in ancient China can be traced back to various purposes, including religious ceremonies, ancestor veneration, traditional medicine, and daily life.
In ancient China, incense was burned during festivals and processions to honour ancestors and household gods. It was also used in traditional Chinese medicine, with the practice considered the first phase of Ayurveda, where incense was used as an approach to healing. The earliest vessels identified as censers, or incense burners, date back to the mid-fifth to late fourth centuries BCE during the Warring States period. The modern Chinese term for censer is "xianglu" (香爐), a combination of "'xiang' (incense) and 'lu' (爐, meaning brazier, stove, or furnace)".
The production of incense sticks in ancient China involved using bamboo as a supporting core, coated with a thick layer of incense material. The bamboo species Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens was commonly chosen due to its ideal burning characteristics. The production process included manually trimming, soaking, peeling, and splitting the bamboo into thin sticks with a square cross-section of less than 3mm in width. This traditional method has been largely replaced by machines in modern incense production.
Incense played a significant role in the cultural and artistic life of ancient China. During the Song Dynasty (960-1279), incense use in China reached its height, with nobility embracing it as a cultural pastime. Incense was often used by intellectuals and artists, including poets, writers, and musicians. It was an essential accompaniment to their creative pursuits, with some even infusing incense into their ink. The scent was believed to enhance the aroma of the ink and improve its resistance to moisture.
Additionally, the development of the sophisticated art form of xiangdao (香道) in ancient China demonstrates the importance of incense in their culture. Xiangdao involves the use of various utensils, such as tongs, spatulas, and special moulds, to burn incense and create ideograms with incense powder. This art form was often practised alongside other arts, such as tea drinking and guqin playing, to enhance the ambiance of personal spaces.
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Incense in ancient India
Incense has been an integral part of Indian culture and spirituality since ancient times. The practice of burning incense in India can be traced back to the Neolithic and Chalcolithic periods (3300–1300 BCE). The Vedas, specifically the Atharva-veda and the Rigveda, are the oldest textual sources on incense, providing a uniform method of making incense.
The Vedas mention the use of incense for masking unpleasant odours and creating a pleasurable aroma. However, the modern system of organised incense-making is attributed to the medicinal priests of that time, linking it intrinsically to the Ayurvedic medical system. Incense was also used as a healing tool, with the Mahabharata classifying incense dhupa into three types: resins, heartwoods, and artificially produced ingredients. The blend of these three types of ingredients formed the basis of incense-making in ancient India.
Indian incense, or Agarbatti, is deeply rooted in the spiritual traditions of Hinduism, Jainism, and Buddhism. In the realm of religious worship, dhūpa (incense) and gandhā (perfumes) are considered essential, along with flowers, lamps, and offerings. The use of incense in these traditions is believed to help achieve the four aims of human life: Dharma (duty/ethics), Artha (wealth), Kama (desire), and Moksha (liberation).
The innovation of using a bamboo stick core for incense sticks emerged in India in the late 19th century, marking a significant evolution from traditional methods. The basic ingredients of an Indian incense stick include bamboo sticks, paste (made from charcoal dust or sawdust), and perfume ingredients such as masala (ground powder) or essential oils. Indian incense makers often follow Ayurvedic principles, categorising incense ingredients into five classes: Ether (fruits), Water (stems and branches), Fire (roots and barks), Air (leaves and herbs), and Sky (flowers and spices).
Incense has played a significant role in India's cultural and spiritual rituals, with ancient texts like the Kamasutra elaborating on the art of perfume blending, showcasing the depth and sophistication of fragrance use in Indian society. Today, India is the world's foremost incense-producing nation, exporting incense worldwide and continuing the ancient tradition of using incense for spiritual and therapeutic benefits.
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Incense in ancient Rome and Greece
The oldest textual source on incense is the Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda and the Rigveda. The use of incense in ancient Rome and Greece was deeply rooted in their cultures and religions.
Incense in Ancient Rome
Incense was widely used in ancient Rome, with its use being deeply entrenched in Roman polytheism. The Etruscans, who had a significant influence on Roman religion, are known to have used incense as early as the 6th century BCE. By the Imperial Age, Rome's sophisticated trade routes led to a substantial drop in the cost of incense, making it widely accessible. The two most popular forms of incense in ancient Rome were frankincense and myrrh, which were imported from southern Arabia. Frankincense was particularly pervasive, with evidence of its use in Roman burials as far west as Britain.
In Roman culture, incense was used for both practical and ritualistic purposes. Practically, it served as a deodorant to counteract unpleasant odours. Religiously, it was used in public and private sacrifices and in the cult of the emperor. It was also burned as an offering to the gods, with the smoke ascending to heaven believed to be a means of communication with the divine.
Incense in Ancient Greece
Incense was also an important part of ancient Greek culture and religion. From the 8th century BCE, woods and resins were burned as offerings to the gods and for protection against demons. The ancient Greeks imported incense from southern Arabia, and it was an expensive product.
The ancient Greeks had a strong cultural association with incense, as evidenced by their incense burners, known as "thymiateria". These thymiateria varied widely in form, ranging from simple earthenware pots to elaborately decorated items made from clay or bronze.
The Orphic Hymns, a collection of 87 hymns attributed to Orpheus, provide insight into the specific types of incense used for different gods. For example, manna was used to worship Artemis and Asclepius, while Athena preferred incense made from aromatic herbs, and Dionysus expected storax, a rare fragrant gum resin.
In summary, the use of incense in ancient Rome and Greece was deeply rooted in their religious practices and cultural traditions. It served both practical and symbolic purposes, with its aroma believed to have divine attributes and the ability to communicate with the gods.
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Frequently asked questions
The oldest textual source on incense is the Vedas, specifically the Atharvaveda and the Rigveda, composed between 1500 and 500 BCE.
Incense was first used in the Indus Valley Civilization in India around 3600 BCE.
Incense was burned as an offering to various deities and spirits, and as a means to purify the mind and body.
The use of incense spread through trade routes and cultural exchanges. It was also influenced by the expansion of Buddhism and the ancient Silk Road trade route.
