Antonio Mcgowan
The art of making perfume has evolved over the centuries, from ancient civilisations infusing aromatic flowers and woods into body lotions to today's complex fragrance bases formulated with simple concepts like fresh cut grass. The process of creating a perfume involves a combination of art and science, with perfumers crafting scents that evoke emotions and memories. While the techniques have been refined by scientists, many popular perfume brands still use methods from ancient times. This includes extracting scented oils from natural ingredients like plants, fruits, woods, barks, flowers, blossoms, and even animal secretions. Synthetic chemicals are also used to emulate scents that don't occur naturally or lack essential oils, with the first synthetic perfume, nitrobenzene, being created in the mid-1800s.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Ingredients | Natural: plants, fruits, flowers, spices, woods, animal secretions |
| Synthetic: chemicals, alcohol, coal, tars, petrochemicals | |
| Methods | Expression, solvent extraction, steam distillation, enfleurage, maceration |
| Notes | Top, central/heart, base |
| Aging | Several months to years |
| Synthetic Scents | Musk, leather |
| Natural Fixatives | Plants |
| Synthetic Fixatives | Nitro and polycyclic musks, aromatics, synthetic polymers |
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What You'll Learn
The history of perfume
Perfume was also prevalent in ancient Greece and Rome, where it became a symbol of luxury. The Greeks used floral oils to scent their clothes and bedding, while the Romans bathed in aromatic waters. The ancient Greeks utilised spices, florals, and resins for perfumery, often taking advantage of the whole plant, including its roots. Rose was a common ingredient in their perfumes, described by Pliny the Elder as "a flower that grows everywhere", with a light fragrance. Other popular perfumes of the time included "megaleion", possibly created in the 3rd century BC, made from burnt resin or lacquer, myrrh, cassia, and cinnamon.
During the Middle Ages, perfume-making evolved further in the Islamic world, where chemists refined the distillation process to extract essential oils. The Persian Muslim doctor and chemist Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by distillation, which remains the most common method today. He first experimented with roses, and his discovery of rose water influenced Western perfumery and scientific developments, particularly chemistry.
In the 18th century, the first eau de cologne was invented by an Italian barber in the German city of Köln, originally called "Aqua Admirabilis" (Admirable Water) and sold as a miracle medicine. It was highly praised by Napoleon and was first sold as a fragrance under the name 4711, the address of the first eau de cologne shop in Köln. It is still produced today.
The mass marketing of perfume began in the mid-19th century, coinciding with the introduction of synthetic chemicals. The first synthetic perfume was made from nitric acid and benzene and was called nitrobenzene. The first fragrance labelled a "parfum" extract with a high concentration of aromatic compounds was Guerlain's Jicky in 1889. Chanel No. 5 was the first perfume to apply modern chemical principles and the first to contain synthetics.
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Natural vs synthetic ingredients
The process of creating a fragrance is a combination of art and science. Perfumes are made from various natural and synthetic ingredients. Natural fragrances come from the earth and include aromatic flowers, woods, barks, spices, fruits, plants, and even animal secretions.
In ancient times, perfume makers infused body lotions and water with these natural ingredients. They also burned incense made from spices like cinnamon and myrrh and extracted oils from plants. The ancient Egyptians, for example, burned incense called kypi, which was made from henna, myrrh, cinnamon, and juniper. They also made aromatic body lotions by soaking aromatic wood, gum, and resin in water and oil.
The Persian chemist Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna) introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by distillation, which is the most common method used today. Other methods of extracting oils from natural ingredients include solvent extraction, steam distillation, expression, enfleurage (a process that squeezes out the oils), and maceration.
However, not all scents occur in nature or produce essential oils, so synthetic chemicals are used to emulate these scents. The mass marketing of perfume began in the mid-1800s and coincided with the introduction of synthetic chemicals. The first synthetic perfume was made from nitric acid and benzene and was called nitrobenzene. It had top notes of almond and was often used in scented soaps. Other synthetic compounds include citronellol, which has notes of sweet pea, lily of the valley, narcissus, and hyacinth. Synthetic fragrances are also used to create scents that are difficult or expensive to source naturally, such as musk and leather.
Synthetic chemicals are also used as fixatives to extend a perfume's longevity by hindering evaporation. Common types of synthetic fixatives include nitro and polycyclic musks, aromatics, and synthetic polymers. However, these synthetic chemicals have been linked to environmental issues, allergic reactions, and serious health risks. PFAS (Per- and Polyfluoroalkyl Substances) are synthetic chemicals commonly used in the perfume industry that do not break down in the body or the environment and have been linked to considerable health risks.
Natural perfumes, on the other hand, typically avoid synthetic ingredients and are less likely to contain PFAS. They may be more difficult to harvest, but they provide a more natural and potentially safer alternative to synthetic fragrances.
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The perfume-making process
Firstly, the required ingredients must be collected. These can include various natural ingredients such as plants, fruits, barks, flowers, blossoms, woods, and even animal secretions. For example, the fragrant oil in sassafras root bark is used either directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole, which is further used in synthesizing other fragrant compounds.
Next is the extraction process, where scented oils are extracted from the natural ingredients. This can be done through various methods such as solvent extraction, steam distillation, expression (pressing the ingredients), enfleurage (squeezing out the oils), or maceration. The ancient method of expression is still commonly used today, where the ingredients are pressed until all the oil is extracted. Another method, distillation, was introduced by the Persian chemist Ibn Sina, where oils are extracted from flowers.
After the extraction process, the perfume concentrate is diluted in alcohol, and the mixture is left to mature. This process can take up to a month.
Following this, the perfume undergoes the aging process, which can last from several months to a year. During this time, the perfume is stored undisturbed in a cool, dark area, allowing the alcohol and essential oils to permanently bond.
Finally, an expert tests the scent for quality control. Adjustments, such as additional blending, can be made at this stage. The final product should be a scent with three distinct notes: a top note, a central or heart note, and a base note.
Overall, the process of creating a fragrance is a combination of art and science, with ancient methods still influencing modern perfume-making techniques.
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Common perfume ingredients
The ingredients used in perfumes have changed over time. In ancient times, perfumes were made from natural ingredients such as fruits, flowers, incense, spices, and wood. Ancient civilisations also infused body lotions and water with aromatic flowers and different types of wood. They burned incense made from spices like cinnamon and myrrh, and they extracted oils from plants.
Today, many perfumes are still made from natural ingredients, including various plants, fruits, woods, and even animal secretions. However, synthetic chemicals are now also used to emulate scents that do not occur in nature or do not produce essential oils. The first synthetic perfume was made from nitric acid and benzene and called nitrobenzene. It had top notes of almond and was often used in scented soaps.
The most common source of perfume aromatics is flowers and blossoms. This includes several species of rose and jasmine, as well as osmanthus, plumeria, mimosa, tuberose, narcissus, scented geranium, cassie, ambrette, and the blossoms of citrus and ylang-ylang trees. Orchid flowers are generally not used commercially, except in the case of vanilla orchids, which are pollinated and made into seed pods for use in perfumery.
Barks such as cinnamon and cascarilla are also commonly used in perfumes, as is the fragrant oil in sassafras root bark, which is used directly or purified for its main constituent, safrole. This is then used in the synthesis of other fragrant compounds.
Alcohol is another important ingredient in perfumes. It determines a perfume's sillage (trail) and permits a sprayable consistency. It is also a powerful solvent that evaporates quickly and is invisible. Aldehydes are another common ingredient, and these organic compounds are usually fruity in character.
Finally, fixatives are used to extend a perfume's longevity by hindering evaporation. Natural fixatives are derived from plants, while synthetic options include nitro and polycyclic musks, aromatics, and synthetic polymers.
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Perfume classification
Floral fragrances
Some of the most popular and common types of perfumes are derived from flowers like rose, jasmine, lavender, and lily. Floral perfumes can range from light and fresh to deep and complex, making them suitable for everyday wear and special occasions.
Oriental fragrances
These perfumes are warm, rich, and exotic. They often include spicy, sweet, and slightly musky notes. Oriental perfumes are more intense and are usually best suited for evening wear. These fragrances often include ingredients like vanilla, amber, and spices such as cinnamon and clove. They can be enhanced by camphorous oils and incense resins, evoking Victorian-era "Oriental" imagery.
Woody fragrances
These fragrances are characterized by their warm, earthy, and sophisticated scents. Woody notes typically include agarwood, sandalwood, cedarwood, and vetiver. Patchouli, with its camphoraceous smell, is also commonly found in these perfumes. Woody fragrances are split into mossy woods with an earthy, sweet undertone, and dry woods which often have a smoky, leathery smell to them.
Leather fragrances
Leather fragrances feature honey, tobacco, wood, and wood tars in the middle or base notes, with a scent that alludes to leather.
Other fragrance families
Other fragrance families include Chypre, which is named after the first modern fragrance built on a Chypre accord, François Coty's Chypre from 1917. Amber or "Oriental" is a large class featuring sweet, slightly animalic scents of ambergris or labdanum, often combined with vanilla, tonka bean, flowers, and woods. Bark is another category of fragrances, with cinnamon and cascarilla being commonly used barks.
Perfume concentration
Perfumes can also be classified by concentration, which refers to the amount of fragrance oil in the perfume. The higher the concentration of oils, the longer the scent will last and the more intense and expensive it will be. The five main categories of perfume concentration are:
- Pure perfume, with 20-30% essential oil concentration, lasting up to 24 hours.
- Eau de parfum, with 15-20% concentration, lasting 4-8 hours.
- Eau de toilette, with 5-15% concentration, suitable for daytime wear.
- Eau de cologne, with 2-4% concentration, lasting 2-3 hours.
- Eau fraiche, with 1-2% concentration, lasting a couple of hours.
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Frequently asked questions
Perfumes are made from a variety of natural and synthetic ingredients. Natural ingredients include various plants, fruits, woods, barks, flowers, blossoms, animal secretions, and essential oils. Synthetic ingredients include chemicals, alcohol, coal, tars, and petrochemicals.
In ancient times, perfume makers did not have the ability to manufacture synthetic smells. All fragrances came from the earth in one form or another. Ancient civilizations infused body lotions and water with aromatic flowers and different types of wood. They also burned incense made from spices like cinnamon and myrrh, and extracted oils from plants. The process of creating perfume has become more sophisticated over time, with the introduction of synthetic chemicals and more advanced extraction methods.
Synthetic perfume ingredients can include chemicals such as PFAS, artificial coloring, preservatives, and synthetic polymers. Synthetic fragrances can also be used to emulate scents that do not occur in nature or do not produce essential oils, such as musk and leather.
