The Chemistry Of Scents: What's In Your Cologne And Perfume?

The world of fragrances is a complex one, with a rich history and a variety of ingredients and processes that go into creating the final product. The terms cologne and perfume are often used as generic labels for fragrances marketed to men and women, respectively, but what are they really made of? Understanding the ingredients and processes involved in creating these fragrances can help us appreciate the art and science behind them.

The history of perfume and cologne

Ancient Civilisations

Perfume usage has been recorded in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Roman Empire, the Indus Valley, and possibly Ancient China. In these ancient cultures, perfume was used for hygiene, cleanliness, and religious ceremonies. For example, the ancient Egyptians burned incense called 'kyphi', made from henna, myrrh, cinnamon, and juniper, as religious offerings. They also assigned specific fragrances to deities and used perfumes in burial practices.

The first recorded chemist and perfume maker was a woman named Tapputi, who lived in Babylonian Mesopotamia around 1200 BCE. She developed methods for scent extraction that laid the foundation for future perfume-making.

The Greeks and Romans

The ancient Greeks are credited with creating the first liquid perfumes, while the Romans further refined the art of perfumery. Pliny the Elder, a Roman writer and naturalist, documented perfume-making processes in his work 'Naturalis Historia'. The Romans also used perfumes extensively, with public bathhouses scented with frankincense and myrrh, and body care items such as balms, oils, and perfumes.

The Middle Ages

After the fall of the Roman Empire, perfume-making became an Oriental art, particularly in Islamic cultures. The Arabic philosopher al-Kindi wrote a book on perfumes, including recipes and methods, in the 9th century. The Persians also played a significant role, with King Persepolis Darius often pictured holding bottles of perfume or incense.

During the Middle Ages in Europe, perfume-making techniques and materials were brought back by crusaders from the Middle East. The bubonic plague also contributed to the popularity of fragrances, as doctors treating victims wore masks filled with herbs, spices, and oils, believing they offered protection from the disease.

The Renaissance

By the Renaissance, perfume had become a fashion accessory, with European men and women wearing perfumes on their bodies, clothing, and wigs. Queen Elizabeth I of England is known for her love of perfume, as she could not tolerate bad smells and ensured all public places were scented during her reign.

Modern Times

The first modern perfume was created in the 14th century by Queen Elizabeth of Hungary, who made a perfume of scented oils blended in an alcohol solution, known as 'Hungary Water'. The art of perfumery then prospered in Renaissance Italy, and later in France, thanks to Catherine de' Medici and her Italian perfumer, Rene le Florentin.

In the late 19th century, modern perfumery emerged with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds, allowing for the creation of new scents. The term 'perfume' also emerged during this time, and the fragrance industry began to develop and market perfumes with different concentrations and for different genders.

Today, the use of perfume and cologne continues to be popular worldwide, with people wearing fragrances for various reasons, including self-expression, boosting self-esteem, and enhancing their mood.

Natural ingredients used

• Trees and wood from various sources, such as sandalwood, pine, cedar, and birch.
• Roots and resins, including myrrh and frankincense.
• Flowers and blossoms, such as jasmine, rose, orchid, and ylang-ylang.
• Fruits and citrus rinds, like bergamot, lemon, orange, and grapefruit.
• Leaves and twigs, including lavender, patchouli, sage, and rosemary.
• Seeds, such as coriander, cocoa, nutmeg, and cardamom.
• Animal products, including musk from deer, ambergris from sperm whales, and castoreum from beavers.

These natural ingredients are extracted and distilled in various ways, including steam distillation, solvent extraction, and expression, to create the essential oils and fragrances used in perfumes and colognes.

When creating a custom fragrance, it's important to understand the fragrance scale and the different notes that will be perceived over time. Top notes are the first scents you'll smell, followed by middle notes, and finally, the base notes, which provide the foundation of the fragrance. When blending essential oils, it's recommended to use a ratio of around 20% base notes, 50% middle notes, and 30% top notes, experimenting to find the perfect formula.

Synthetic ingredients used

Synthetic ingredients are key to the perfume industry, with perfumers having access to a vast array of synthetic molecules to create a diverse range of fragrances. These synthetic ingredients are often favoured over natural ones due to their longer-lasting scent, affordability, and the ability to create unique fragrances not found in nature.

Synthetic ingredients can be divided into three types: full synthetics, semi-synthetics, and natural isolates. Full synthetics are composed almost entirely of petroleum by-products, while semi-synthetics are natural fragrances modified by artificial means. Natural isolates are developed by isolating a single scent from a complex aroma base, such as a red rose.

One of the most well-known synthetic ingredients used in perfumery is aliphatic aldehydes, which were first used in Chanel No. 5 and are known for their clean, soapy, and lemony scent. These aldehydes are often used to lighten heavy floral fragrances and are still found in modern perfumes such as those from Prada and Serge Lutens.

Another important synthetic ingredient is musk, which has been a staple in the perfume industry for centuries. Traditionally, musk was derived from the glands of animals such as the musk deer, but synthetic alternatives have been developed over time. One such alternative is nitro musks, discovered by accident but later phased out due to their carcinogenic properties. Today, plant-based alternatives like ambrette seed oil, made from the seeds of the musk mallow, are used, although these are quite expensive.

Synthetic ingredients also include calone, which adds a "sea breeze" or marine note to fragrances, and cashmeran, a synthetic aldehyde that invokes the smell of cashmere with its spicy, ambery, musky, and floral odour.

The use of synthetic ingredients in perfumery offers both advantages and challenges. On the one hand, synthetic ingredients can be more affordable and accessible than natural ones, allowing for the mass production of fragrances. They also provide perfumers with a wider range of scents to work with, enabling them to create unique fragrances that may not be possible with natural ingredients alone.

On the other hand, there are concerns about the safety and environmental impact of synthetic ingredients. Some synthetic chemicals have been linked to health issues, such as hormone disruption and allergic reactions, and their long-term effects on human health are not yet fully understood. Additionally, the production and use of synthetic ingredients can have negative consequences for the environment, including deforestation and the use of petroleum by-products.

In conclusion, synthetic ingredients play a crucial role in the perfume industry, offering perfumers a diverse palette of scents to create unique and long-lasting fragrances. However, the potential health and environmental impacts of these ingredients are important considerations, and there is a growing demand for more natural and sustainable alternatives.

How perfume and cologne are made

The process of making perfume and cologne has evolved over the centuries, with ancient civilisations using natural ingredients and modern perfumers employing synthetic chemicals to create a range of fragrances. The art of perfumery involves combining various ingredients, both natural and synthetic, to create a harmonious scent accord that appeals to the wearer and those around them.

Ingredients

Perfumes and colognes are typically made from a combination of fragrant essential oils, aroma compounds, fixatives, solvents, and other aromatic chemicals. Natural ingredients include flowers, grasses, spices, fruits, woods, resins, balsams, leaves, gums, and even animal secretions. Synthetic chemicals are used to recreate or enhance certain scents and can also be used to create original scents not found in nature.

Extraction Methods

The process of extracting oils from plants and other natural sources is a critical step in perfumery. Common extraction methods include steam distillation, solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, and expression. In steam distillation, steam is passed through plant material, causing the essential oil to turn into gas, which is then cooled and liquefied. Solvent extraction involves dissolving plant parts in solvents like benzene and then burning off the solvent to obtain the perfume oil. Enfleurage uses grease or warmed fats to absorb the fragrance of flowers, while maceration soaks flowers in warmed fats to extract their scent. Expression is the oldest and simplest method, where fruits or plants are manually or mechanically pressed to release their oils.

Blending and Aging

Once the desired oils are extracted, they are blended together according to a precise formula determined by a master perfumer, known as a "nose." This process can take years and involve hundreds of different ingredients. After blending, alcohol is added to dilute the mixture, with the amount of alcohol determining whether the final product is a perfume, eau de toilette, or cologne. The blended fragrance is then aged for several months or even years in a dark, cool area to allow the alcohol and oils to bind together.

Final Steps

After aging, an expert will test the scent to ensure it meets the desired profile. Adjustments and additional blending may be made at this stage if needed. Finally, the perfume or cologne is bottled and packaged for sale.

How to apply perfume and cologne

Applying Cologne

Cologne should be applied sparingly and strategically to ensure it lasts all day. The best time to apply cologne is immediately after showering, as this cleanses the body of any other scents and opens the pores, helping the scent absorb. It's important to completely dry your skin before spraying cologne. Hold the bottle 3-6 inches from your body when spraying, aiming for heated areas of the body such as the neck, chest, pulse points, forearms, and inner elbows. These areas generate heat, which helps diffuse the scent throughout the day and allows it to meld with your body chemistry to create your signature scent.

It's recommended to start with a light application—choose one area, such as the neck or forearms, and apply one spray. If you notice the scent fading quickly, choose another area to spray the next time you apply. You can ask a close friend or family member for their opinion on whether the application is appropriate, as you can become nose-blind to scents you wear often.

It's generally best to avoid applying cologne directly to your clothing, as this prevents it from mixing with your natural oils and can harm some fabrics. If you do choose to apply cologne to your clothes, spray a small area such as the collar or cuff.

Applying Perfume

The conventional way to apply perfume in Western cultures is to spray it behind the ears, at the nape of the neck, under the armpits, and at the insides of the wrists, elbows, and knees. These pulse points will warm the perfume and continuously release fragrance. According to perfumer Sophia Grojsman, behind the knees is the ideal point to apply perfume, as the scent rises from there.

The modern perfume industry encourages layering fragrance so that it is released in different intensities throughout the day. Lightly scented products such as bath oil, shower gel, and body lotion are recommended for the morning; eau de toilette is suggested for the afternoon; and perfume applied to the pulse points is recommended for the evening.

Common Mistakes

Whether applying cologne or perfume, it's important not to over-apply. This can be overwhelming for both the wearer and those around them. Additionally, rubbing the fragrance onto the skin can cause the scent to fade faster, as it breaks the molecular bond. It's best to simply dab or spray the perfume or cologne.

Storing perfume or cologne correctly will help prolong its shelf life. Keep the fragrance in its original box or a dark drawer or cabinet, avoiding direct sunlight and fluctuations in temperature.

Frequently asked questions