Antonio Mcgowan
Incense is an aromatic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. The practice of lighting incense has a long history in Asia, especially in China, Japan, and India. In ancient China, incense composed of herbs and plant products was used in formalized ceremonial rites and religious worship. It was also used in traditional Chinese medicine and as a perfume or spice. The use of incense in China reached its peak during the Song Dynasty, with the construction of specialized rooms for incense ceremonies. The advent of Buddhism in China and East Asia also played a critical role in the evolution of incense culture, introducing new liturgical and meditative practices that incorporated incense. Incense has also been an important part of Japanese culture, with the art of incense appreciation (Kōdō) and its inclusion in tea ceremonies. The history of incense in Asia is complex and varied, reflecting the diverse cultures and tasks for which it was used.
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What You'll Learn
Incense in China
Incense has been an integral part of Chinese culture for thousands of years, with the first recorded use of incense in human history being in ancient China. The character for 'incense' or 'aromatics' was recorded as far back as the Shang Dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BCE). The earliest vessels identified as censers (incense burners) date to the mid-fifth to late fourth centuries BCE during the Warring States period.
The use of incense in China reached its height during the Song Dynasty (960–1279 CE), when it was an essential part of the life of the nobility and intellectuals. It was used when writing poetry, playing music, entertaining, and during meditation. Incense was also infused into the ink used by Song Dynasty intellectuals, with musk, camphor, and clove being the most well-known ingredients. The great ancient inventions of gunpowder, the compass, and printing all occurred during this time, and Chinese cities were the largest and most sophisticated in the world.
The word for incense in Chinese is 'xiang' (香), which also means 'fragrance', 'scent', 'aroma', 'perfume', and 'spice'. Indeed, in medieval China, there was little distinction between drugs, spices, perfumes, and incenses. Incense was used to aromatize rooms and clothing, as well as for religious purposes, including Buddhist worship and ancestor veneration. The practice of using incense spread from China to Japan via Buddhism, and it continues to be used in traditional Chinese medicine and in daily life.
Incense clocks were also used in China, with the poet Yu Jianwu (487–551) recording their use: "By burning incense we know the o'clock of the night, with graduated candles we confirm the tally of the watches." The use of incense timekeeping devices spread from Buddhist monasteries into secular society.
The fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912 brought an end to the imperial rule, and with it, the practice of incense came to a halt as China plunged into years of war and turmoil. However, in recent years, incense has started to make a comeback in modern Chinese life.
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Incense in Buddhism
Incense is an integral part of Buddhism, with burning incense being a standard and sacred ritual. It is mentioned frequently in the Pali Canon, scriptures that date back to the life of the Buddha. It is offered at altars and to Buddha images in temples and home shrines, and its use is said to stretch back to the beginning of human history.
Incense is used to purify the space in which it is burned, whether that be a meditation hall or a room in a house. It is also used to create a tranquil atmosphere. In some schools of Buddhism, incense may have a particular symbolic meaning. For example, three sticks burned together might represent the Three Treasures: the Buddha, the dharma, and the sangha. The burning of incense also symbolises the necessity of burning away negative qualities within oneself to reveal the pure self within. The fragrant smoke produced by burning incense rises and dissolves into the air, reminding the observer of the transient nature of existence.
The type of incense used depends on the culture and tradition. In Buddhism, stick incense is the most common type used in temples, although there is also loose incense that is burned by dropping grains of incense onto hot charcoal. The coreless or "solid" variety is considered more appropriate for Buddhism as it burns away completely. However, the bamboo core variety is also commonly used. In some Asian temples, huge coils of incense are suspended from the ceilings. The fragrances and quality of incense vary, and the type of incense used depends on personal preference. Japanese incense, for example, tends to be more subtle and less smoky.
The practice of using incense is an ancient one, with the word incense being derived from the Latin incendere, meaning 'to burn'. Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians used incense for both pragmatic and mystical purposes. Incense was used to mask bad odours but was also believed to ward off demons and please the gods. The use of incense spread from the Babylonians to the Greeks and Romans, and it was also used in China, where it was employed for timekeeping in the form of incense clocks.
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Incense clocks
The basic blueprint of an incense clock involved several trays, a few intricate labyrinth-designed stencils, a spatula or leveler tool, and a latticework lid to help keep the incense lit. To set the clock, one must first smooth the ashes with the damper until they are perfectly flat. Then, one must select a stencil, use the sharp edge of the shovel to carve out a groove following the pattern, and fill it with incense. Finally, one must cap it with the lacy lid to vent the smoke and control the flow of oxygen.
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Incense in traditional Chinese medicine
Incense has been used in China since the Neolithic period, with its use increasing during the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The Chinese word for incense, "xiang" (香), also means "fragrance", "scent", "aroma", "perfume", and "spice". Incense in China is used in a wide range of cultural activities, including religious ceremonies, ancestor veneration, traditional medicine, and daily life.
The production of incense and Traditional Chinese Medicine involves similar ingredients and processing techniques. For example, jiu (灸, "moxibustion") is used in both incense and Traditional Chinese Medicine. Incense ingredients often overlap with the traditional Chinese herbal pharmacopoeia, with some of the most common ingredients including camphor (zhangnao, 樟腦) and the dried powdered bark of Persea nanmu (楠木皮). The Bencao Gangmu pharmacopoeia states that "camphor cured evil vapors in the heart and belly and was especially recommended for eye troubles, including cataracts."
Incense is believed to have both physiological and psychological benefits. The smoke released by burning incense can act as a simple deodorant or insect repellent, and it may also have more specific medicinal properties. The use of incense in traditional Chinese medicine is similar to its use in ancient Egypt, where it was believed to have mystical properties, such as deterring malevolent demons and appeasing the gods.
Incense burning has also developed into a sophisticated art form in China, known as xiangdao (香道). This involves various utensils and paraphernalia, such as tongs, spatulas, and special moulds to create ideograms with incense powder, all placed on a small table. It is often used to enhance personal spaces and accompany other arts, such as tea drinking and guqin playing.
Today, incense sticks designed for traditional Chinese medicine can be purchased online.
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Incense in ancestor veneration
Incense has been used in ancestor veneration in various cultures and religions. The practice of burning incense for ancestors is believed to have originated in China, where it is known as "xiang" (香), which translates to "fragrance", "scent", "aroma", "perfume", or "spice". The use of incense in ancestor veneration is deeply rooted in Chinese traditional religion and Confucian philosophy, which calls for paying respect to one's ancestors as an aspect of filial piety.
In Chinese culture, ancestor veneration, also called ancestor worship, revolves around the ritual celebration of deified ancestors and tutelary deities of people with the same surname, organised into lineage societies in ancestral shrines. Ancestors, their ghosts, spirits, and gods are considered part of the natural world and are believed to be humans who have become godly beings, retaining their individual identities. This belief is a significant aspect of Han Chinese religion, but it has also spread to ethnic minority groups. The social function of ancestor veneration in China is to cultivate kinship values, family loyalty, and continuity of the family lineage.
Chinese Filipinos have distinct customs related to ancestor veneration, incorporating Chinese practices into Catholic Masses during the All Souls' Day period. They burn incense and kim at family tombs and before photos at home. In Vietnam, ancestor veneration is a unifying aspect of the culture, with most Vietnamese having an ancestor altar in their homes or businesses. Ancestor veneration practices are also prevalent in South China, where lineage bonds are stronger, and in rural northern Thailand, where a religious ceremony called Faun Phii honours ancestral spirits with offerings and rituals.
The use of incense in ancestor veneration is not limited to Asian cultures. In European, Oceanian, African, and Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestor veneration is practised to ensure the ancestors' continued well-being and positive disposition towards the living. In some Afro-diasporic cultures, ancestors are believed to be able to intercede on behalf of the living as messengers between humans and God. Incense is also used in Western cultures, with the Bible mentioning the use of frankincense and myrrh in religious ceremonies.
The act of burning incense during ancestor veneration serves multiple purposes. Firstly, it is believed to create a connection with the ancestors' spirits and seek their guidance. Secondly, incense is valued for its aromatic properties, helping to create a pleasant and sacred atmosphere during rituals. Additionally, the smoke and fragrance of incense can symbolically represent prayers or offerings rising towards the heavens. Finally, in some cultures, incense is believed to have the power to purify spaces and tools used in ancestor veneration rituals.
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Frequently asked questions
Incense is burned in Asia for a variety of reasons, including religious ceremonies, ancestor veneration, traditional medicine, and daily life.
Incense is made from a variety of materials, including different types of bark and essential oils.
To light incense, hold one end of the stick and light the other end with a match or lighter. Allow a small flame to burn for a few seconds, then gently fan or blow it out.
The burn time of incense varies depending on its thickness, length, and quality. On average, an incense stick will burn for 20-40 minutes.
The word "incense" comes from the Latin "incendere", meaning "to burn".
