Antonio Mcgowan
Incense has been used in religious and spiritual rituals since ancient times, with the first recorded use by the Indus Valley Civilisation in 3600 BC. In the Middle Ages, incense was an important part of Christian worship and was also used in medical recipes. Medieval incense was typically made from plant-based materials such as resins, fragrant woods, and spices. It was often burned to symbolise the ascent of prayers to heaven and was believed to have divine attributes. The ingredients used in medieval incense included native plants such as sweet woodruff and sweet clover, as well as imported resins and perfumes from regions like the Middle East.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Ingredients | Resins, fragrant woods, spices, and other aromatic substances |
| Specific Ingredients | Frankincense, myrrh, storax, mastic, camphor, agarwood, cloves, cassia/cinnamon, galium verum, g. odoratum, melilotus officinalis, honey, mullein, hawthorn, gorse flowers |
| Form | Sticks, grains, and/or oils |
| Use | Religious rituals, medical recipes, aromatherapy, and perfume |
| Trade | Incense was traded along established routes from the Arabian and Somali coasts to ancient Egypt, Israel, and other regions |
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What You'll Learn
Ingredients: resins, fragrant woods, spices, aromatics
The use of incense has a long history in religious rituals and traditional medicine. In the European Middle Ages, its use was more restrained in the West than in the East. Medieval incense recipes combined resins and fragrant woods, often with spices and other aromatics.
Resins, such as frankincense and myrrh, were key ingredients in incense. In ancient Israel, the liturgy incense was a mixture of frankincense, storax, onycha, and galbanum, with salt added as a preservative. Other resins used include mastic, agarwood, and styrax. These resins were often imported from regions like the Arabian and Somali coasts, and the Middle East.
Fragrant woods were another important component of medieval incense. In ancient Greece, for example, woods were burned as an oblation and for protection against demons, a practice that was later adopted by the Romans. Camphor, derived from the Borneo camphor tree, was also a common ingredient in early medieval incense recipes.
Spices and other aromatics were added to incense to create unique blends. Medieval incense recipes often included spices like cloves and cinnamon, as well as aromatics like benzoin and copal. These spices and aromatics enhanced the fragrance and may have been sourced from established trade routes with regions that exported exotic aromatics.
Some other ingredients found in medieval incense recipes include native British plants such as Galium verum (our ladies bedstraw), G. odoratum (sweet woodruff), and Melilotus officinalis (sweet clover), which contain coumarin and smell like sweetgrass or tonka beans. Honey was also used as a binder in incense-making, helping to shape the final product.
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Religious rituals: purification, prayer, sacrifices
Incense has been used in religious rituals around the world for thousands of years. The use of incense in religious contexts is often associated with purification, prayer, and sacrifices and offerings.
Purification
Incense has been used in purification rituals in various religious traditions. In ancient Egypt, incense was burned to counteract disagreeable odours and drive away demons. Similarly, in Greece from the 8th century BC, woods and resins were burned as an offering to the gods and for protection against demons, a practice also adopted by the Orphics. In pre-Columbian America, the burning of incense was believed to offer protection against evil spirits. In the present day, Mandaeism uses incense to establish laufa (communion) between humans and celestial beings during rituals.
Prayer
Incense has been used to symbolise prayer in several religious traditions. In the Hebrew Bible, Psalm 141 (140), verse 2, equates prayer with incense: "Let my prayer be directed as incense in thy sight: the lifting up of my hands, as the evening sacrifice". The smoke of burning incense is interpreted by both the Western Catholic and Eastern Christian churches as a symbol of the prayers of the faithful rising to heaven. Similarly, in early Daoist rituals, the fumes and odours of incense burners were believed to produce a mystic exaltation and contribute to well-being.
Sacrifices
Incense has been used in sacrifices and offerings in various religious traditions. In ancient Egypt, incense was offered at altars during daily liturgies and mortuary rites, where it was believed to help the souls of the dead ascend to heaven. The Babylonians and ancient Israelites used incense extensively while offering sacrifices and prayers to the gods. In the 4th century AD, the early Christian church adopted the use of incense in eucharistic ceremonies, symbolising the ascent of the prayers of the faithful. In China, incense is burned during festivals and processions as offerings to honour ancestors and household gods. In India, incense is offered to various forms of God, such as Krishna and Rama, as part of daily Hindu worship.
The specific ingredients and preparation methods of medieval incense are not well-documented. However, it is known that during the medieval period, trade routes were established to import aromatics, resins, and perfumes from regions such as the Middle East. Some natural ingredients that may have been used in medieval British incense include sweet woodruff, sweet clover, and honey as a binder.
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Medical recipes: treatments, medicine
Incense has been used for centuries across various cultures, including in ancient Egypt, Greece, Israel, and China. In the medieval period, incense was employed in Christian ceremonies and medical treatments, with recipes often combining resins, fragrant woods, spices, and other aromatic substances.
Medical Recipes: Treatments and Medicine
Incense was considered a multipurpose substance in early medieval medicine, with individual ingredients also used for their medicinal properties. Camphor, for instance, was used in both medical preparations and incense recipes. The appearance of incense in early medieval medical recipes may have been influenced by its symbolic association with Christian liturgical practices, suggesting a perceived connection between incense and higher power in treatments.
Medieval medical manuscripts, such as the 8th and 9th-century Codex Sangallensis (csg.), contain recipes and remedies that utilise incense. For example, csg. 752 includes medical writings with remedies derived from Pliny's Natural History, such as a dietetic calendar and treatments for lightening hair. Additionally, csg. 44 and 761 offer a collection of recipes, with the latter containing nearly fifty medical treatments.
The use of incense in medicine was part of a long tradition, as evidenced by Dioscorides' comments on cyphi. The individual components of incense, such as resins, fragrant woods, and spices, were also used as ingredients in medical recipes. For instance, frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon, cloves, and cassia were incorporated into medical treatments.
When creating incense blends, it is essential to consider the scent of each component when heated or burned. Honey was often used as a binder in incense recipes, helping to shape the final product. Medieval incense recipes could also include fruits, beverages, and other aromatic substances.
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Trade: imported resins, perfumes, aromatics
Medieval incense was largely made from imported resins, perfumes, and aromatics. During the medieval period, trade routes were established to regions that exported aromatics, exotic resins, and perfumes. Perfumers in the Middle East exported exotic scents in large quantities during this time.
Frankincense and myrrh were the chief substances used as incense, along with aromatic wood and bark, seeds, roots, and flowers. Other natural ingredients used in incense included galium verum (our lady's bedstraw), G. odoratum (sweet woodruff), and melilotus officinalis (sweet clover), which contain coumarin and smell like sweetgrass or tonka beans.
Incense was also made from imported incense-bearing trees from the Arabian and Somali coasts. In ancient Egypt, incense was prominent in religious rituals, such as in the daily liturgy before the cult image of the sun god Amon-Re and in mortuary rites. The Babylonians used incense extensively while offering prayers or divining oracles.
In Greece, from the 8th century BC, woods and resins were burned as an oblation and for protection against demons, a practice adopted by the Orphics. In Rome, fragrant woods were replaced by imported incense, which became important in public and private sacrifices and in the cult of the emperor.
In the 4th century AD, the early Christian church began to use incense in eucharistic ceremonials, symbolizing the ascent of the prayers of the faithful and the merits of the saints.
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Christian symbolism: prayers rising to heaven
The use of incense in Christian worship is inspired by passages in the Bible, and its symbolism is rooted in the earlier traditions of Judaism. The smoke from burning incense is interpreted by both the Western Catholic and Eastern Christian churches as a symbol of the prayers of the faithful rising to heaven. This symbolism is seen in Psalm 141 (140), verse 2: "Let my prayer be directed as incense in thy sight: the lifting up of my hands, as the evening sacrifice".
Incense has been used in Christian worship since antiquity, particularly in the Roman Catholic Church, Eastern Catholic Church, Orthodox Christian churches, Lutheran Churches, Old Catholic/Liberal Catholic Churches, and some Anglican Churches. Incense is also increasingly being used in other Christian groups, such as Methodism. In the Eastern Orthodox Church, Lutheran churches of Evangelical Catholic churchmanship, Anglican churches of Anglo-Catholic churchmanship, and Old Catholic/Liberal Catholic churches, incense is used at almost every service.
The use of incense in Christian worship is not just symbolic but also practical. Incense is often used as part of a purification ritual, and it is believed to infuse upwards towards the altar of God. In the early Christian church, incense was used in eucharistic ceremonials, symbolizing the ascent of the prayers of the faithful and the merits of the saints. Incense was also employed in the Middle Ages, though its use was more restrained in the West than in the East.
The ingredients used in medieval incense recipes were largely plant-based materials, such as resins and fragrant woods, combined with spices and other aromatic substances. Some of the ingredients that appear with some frequency include frankincense, myrrh, storax, mastic, camphor, agarwood, cloves, and cassia/cinnamon. In medieval Britain, incense recipes might have included native plants such as Galium verum (our ladies' bedstraw), G. odoratum (sweet woodruff), and Melilotus officinalis (sweet clover), which smell like sweetgrass or tonka beans.
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Frequently asked questions
Medieval incense was made from plant-based materials, including resins, fragrant woods, and spices. Some common ingredients in medieval incense were frankincense, myrrh, cinnamon, cloves, and cassia.
Medieval incense could come in the form of sticks, grains, or oils.
Incense was used for religious rituals, medicine, and perfume.
Medieval British incense was likely made from locally available plants such as Galium verum (our ladies bedstraw), G. odoratum (sweet woodruff), and Melilotus officinalis (sweet clover).
