Antonio Mcgowan
Fragrances are substances with strong-smelling organic compounds that have a pleasant odour. They are made up of a mix of more than 3,500 chemicals and are used in many personal care, cleaning, and cosmetic products to give them their unique smell. Perfumes, which are a type of fragrance, are composed of three structural parts—the head, middle, and base notes—to provide the first impression, body, and lasting impression of the fragrance. The head note, or top note, provides the initial scent and usually includes citrus, light fruits, or herbs. The middle note, or heart note, masks any unpleasant initial impression of the base note, and the base note provides the lasting impression of the scent. While fragrances can enhance health and well-being, some fragrance ingredients are toxic chemicals that can cause a range of health issues.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of chemicals | More than 3,500 |
| Toxicity | Some fragrance chemicals are toxic and can cause health problems |
| Disclosure | Manufacturers are not required to disclose individual ingredients |
| Allergens | Some fragrance allergens must be disclosed under a new federal law from December 2022 |
| Trade secrets | Fragrance formulas are considered trade secrets |
| Natural compounds | Derived from natural sources, often plants |
| Synthetic compounds | Synthetic fragrances have a scent and/or chemical composition not found in nature |
| Types of compounds | Five classes of compounds make up most fragrance ingredients |
| Registered ingredients | There are thousands of registered fragrance ingredients |
| FDA regulation | The FDA regulates fragrance ingredients as cosmetics |
| Therapeutic uses | Some fragrance products are intended for therapeutic uses and are treated as drugs under the law |
| Application | Perfumes are applied to the body's pulse points to enhance fragrance release |
| Structure | Perfumes are composed of head, middle, and base notes |
| Concentration | Parfum has the highest concentration of fragrance, followed by eau de parfum, eau de toilette, and eau de cologne |
| Solvents | Perfume oils are often diluted with solvents, commonly alcohol or neutral-smelling oils |
| Dietary influence | Diet can influence the intensity of a fragrance |
| External factors | Medication use and skin dryness can impact the character of a fragrance |
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What You'll Learn
Natural and synthetic chemicals
Fragrances are made up of a combination of more than 3,500 different chemicals, which can be natural or synthetic. Natural compounds are derived from natural sources, particularly plants, by physical or biotechnological procedures. For example, the desired essential oils can be released by heating the plant material to high temperatures and condensing it into a gas, or by adding the material to a solvent to form a waxy aromatic compound that can be mixed with alcohol to release the essential oils.
Synthetic fragrance ingredients can be nature-identical, composed of synthetically-derived ingredients with the same chemical composition as a fragrance found in nature, or artificial, with a scent and chemical composition not found in nature. An example of the latter is the recreation of the scent of flowers such as freesia, peony, and lily of the valley, which are synthetically reconstructed in the lab. Synthetic fragrances are manufactured in laboratories, and while they avoid the need to obtain natural ingredients, achieving the desired scent can be challenging.
The fragrance industry is not required to list ingredients on product labels, as they are considered trade secrets. However, some fragrance allergens will have to be disclosed under a new federal law that passed in December 2022. Fragrance chemicals can cause a range of health problems, including allergic reactions, disruption to the hormone system, and in some cases, cancer.
Fragrances are added to many cosmetics and household goods, including toiletries, laundry detergents, fabric softeners, air fresheners, and candles. Manufacturers use fragrances to make their products more appealing to consumers, and scents are reported to have a positive impact on health and well-being, including improving mood, reducing anxiety, and improving sleep.
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Essential oils and aroma compounds
Perfumes are a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents, usually in liquid form. They are used to give a pleasant scent to humans, animals, food, objects, and living spaces.
Essential oils are derived from natural sources, often plants, by physical or biotechnological procedures. Natural compounds are extracted through distillation or solvent extraction. In distillation, the plant material is heated to high temperatures and condensed into a gas to release the desired essential oils, which are then cooled and liquefied. Water distillation is used for more delicate materials, where the plant material is placed into boiling water. Solvent extraction involves adding the material to a solvent, which forms a waxy aromatic compound that is then mixed with alcohol to release the essential oils.
Aroma compounds are artificial mixtures of aromatic chemicals and essential oils. Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds such as vanillin or coumarin. Synthetic fragrance ingredients can be nature-identical, with the same chemical composition as natural fragrances, or artificial, with a chemical composition not found in nature.
The fragrance of a perfume is composed of three structural parts: the head, middle, and base notes. The head note, or top note, provides the initial scent, usually with a strong, fresh scent that evaporates quickly. Common top notes include citrus, light fruits, and herbs. The middle note, or heart note, masks any unpleasant scent from the base note and provides the main body of the scent. The base note provides the lasting impression of the fragrance. Common base notes include cedarwood, sandalwood, vanilla, amber, patchouli, oakmoss, and musk.
Perfumes are classified into five main groups based on their concentration of aromatic compounds. Parfum or extrait has the highest concentration, at 20-30%, and is the most expensive, oilier, and longer-lasting. Eau de parfum has a 15-20% concentration, with more alcohol and water, and is cheaper and lighter. Eau de toilette has a low concentration of essential oils, at 5-15%, and a high concentration of alcohol.
Fragrances are added to many cosmetics, toiletries, and household goods. They are regulated as cosmetics by the FDA if they are intended to be applied to a person's body to make them more attractive. Fragrance ingredients are also used in products like shampoos, shaving creams, and body lotions.
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Toxic and harmful chemicals
The fragrance industry has long been criticised for its lack of transparency regarding the ingredients used in perfumes, colognes, and other fragranced products. Manufacturers are not required by law to disclose the individual chemicals that make up a product's fragrance, often hiding behind the claim that their formulations are protected "trade secrets". This lack of disclosure means that consumers are often left in the dark about the specific ingredients they are being exposed to, and regulators are unable to ensure the safety of these ingredients.
The International Fragrance Association (IFRA) states that there are more than 3,500 fragrance chemicals in use today. Many of these chemicals have been linked to serious health problems, including cancer, reproductive and developmental toxicity, allergies, and sensitivities. For example, styrene, a chemical found in some fragrances, is designated a carcinogen by the International Agency for Research on Cancer and the National Toxicology Program. It has been linked to severe health problems such as damaging red blood cells and the liver, as well as injuring the brain and disrupting hormone balances. Another chemical, triclosan, which was banned by the FDA in 2016 for use in antibacterial hand soaps, is still used in some fragrances, toothpastes, and mouthwashes.
In addition to the health risks, fragrance chemicals can also be harmful to the environment. Chemical vapours in fragrances, called volatile organic compounds (VOCs), can cause ozone pollution and form fine particulates. A study by Steinemann in 2015 identified more than 150 different VOCs in 37 aromatic consumer products in the United States, 42 of which were classified as toxic or hazardous pollutants under US federal law.
The UN Global Harmonized System of Classification and Labelling of Chemicals (UNGHS) has identified over 1,000 chemicals currently used in fragrances that qualify for a "danger" or "warning" level classification. Despite this, only 186 fragrance chemicals have been banned by the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). This highlights the need for stronger regulations and greater transparency in the fragrance industry to protect consumers from potential health and environmental risks.
To reduce exposure to potentially harmful fragrance chemicals, consumers can take steps such as reading product labels carefully, using apps like ClearYa to find non-toxic products, and consulting resources like Skin Deep, which provides ratings for thousands of products and ingredients.
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Head, middle and base notes
The world of perfumery is complex and fascinating. Perfumes are composed of three structural parts: the head, middle, and base notes. Each of these notes plays a unique role in the olfactory experience, creating depth, balance, and emotion. Understanding these layers is key to appreciating how scents evolve over time, from the first spritz to the lingering final impression.
The top notes, or head notes, are the first scents that hit you when you spray a perfume. They are light, volatile, and fleeting, usually lasting only 5-30 minutes. Common top notes include citruses like lemon and orange, light herbs such as sage and lavender, and tart fruits. These notes create the initial impression of the fragrance, providing a fresh and bright opening.
The middle notes, or heart notes, emerge as the top notes dissipate. They are the multidimensional core of the fragrance, providing depth and balance. Lasting approximately 20-60 minutes, these well-rounded and full-bodied aromas define the perfume's character. Middle notes are often warm, floral, or herbal, with popular choices including jasmine, geranium, cinnamon, and pine. They create a seamless transition, keeping the scent engaging and harmonious.
The base notes, or dry-down notes, are the foundation of the fragrance. They are rich, heavy, and long-lasting, sinking into your skin and lingering for six hours or more. Common base notes include vanilla, amber, musk, patchouli, cedarwood, and sandalwood. These notes emerge as the top notes fade, adding depth and complexity to the fragrance. They work together with the middle notes to create a well-rounded and enduring scent.
The presence of one note may alter the perception of another, and the interplay between these layers is what gives a perfume its unique character. The art of perfumery involves skillfully balancing these elements to create captivating scents that evolve and interact with the wearer's skin.
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Concentration and formulation
Fragrances are made up of a mix of more than 3,500 chemicals, giving personal care, cleaning, and other products their unique smell. They are typically classified into five main groups based on their concentration of aromatic compounds. The higher the concentration, the more expensive the perfume tends to be.
The five main groups are as follows:
- Parfum or extrait: This has a 20–30% concentration of fragrance. Parfum contains a high concentration of fragrance, making it a heavier, oilier product. It is usually used sparingly and has a long-lasting smell, averaging 8 hours and up to 24 hours.
- Eau de parfum or parfum de toilet: This has a 15–20% concentration of fragrance. It contains more alcohol and water than parfum, making it a lighter product with a shorter duration of around 4 to 5 hours. Eau de parfum is the most common fragrance type and is the base for other fragrance types.
- Eau de toilette: This has a 5–15% concentration of fragrance. It has a low concentration of essential oils and a high concentration of alcohol. It lasts between 2 and 4 hours.
- Eau de cologne: This has a low concentration of fragrance, typically lasting around 2 hours.
- Perfume extracts: These are highly concentrated and are usually sold in small quantities.
The concentration of a fragrance can significantly alter the olfactory experience. For example, to make an EdT version of a fragrance brighter and fresher, it may be tweaked to contain more top notes or fewer base notes.
Perfumes are composed of three structural parts: the head, middle, and base notes. The head note, or top note, provides the initial scent that forms the first impression of the perfume. Common top notes include citrus (lemon, orange), light fruits (berries), and herbs (sage, lavender). The middle note, or heart note, masks any unpleasant initial impression of the base note and provides the main body of the scent. Common base notes include cedarwood, sandalwood, vanilla, amber, patchouli, oakmoss, and musk.
The precise formulae of commercial perfumes are kept secret, and fragrance and flavour formulas are complex mixtures of many different natural and synthetic chemical ingredients. Synthetic fragrance ingredients can be nature-identical, meaning they have the same chemical composition as a fragrance found in nature, or artificial, with a chemical composition not found in nature.
Natural fragrance compounds are derived from natural sources, often plants, using methods such as distillation or solvent extraction. Synthetic fragrances are typically manufactured in laboratories, where achieving the desired scent can be challenging.
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Frequently asked questions
Fragrances are made of a combination of natural and synthetic ingredients. Natural compounds are derived from natural sources (often plants) by physical or biotechnological procedures to harness the ingredients. Synthetic fragrance ingredients can be nature-identical, or artificial. Nature-identical synthetic fragrances are made from synthetically derived ingredients to have the same chemical composition as a fragrance found in nature. Artificial fragrances are made from synthetic ingredients and have a scent and/or chemical composition not known to be found in nature.
Common fragrance ingredients include spices such as cinnamon, pepper, cloves, coriander, ginger, and saffron. Flowers are also commonly used, including orange blossom, jasmine, gardenia, tuberose, and honeysuckle. Other common fragrance ingredients include citrus (lemon, orange), light fruits (berries), and herbs (sage, lavender).
Fragrances are classified into 5 main groups based on their concentration of aromatic compounds. Parfum or extrait has the highest concentration of fragrance, followed by eau de parfum or parfum de toilette, eau de toilette, EdT, and EdC.
Fragrances can contain toxic chemicals that may cause health issues such as allergic reactions, asthma, migraines, and contact dermatitis. Fragrance chemicals can also disrupt the hormone system and have been linked to reproductive harm and cancer. However, it's important to note that manufacturers are legally responsible for ensuring the safety of their products, and organizations like the International Fragrance Association (IFRA) and The Research Institute for Fragrance Materials (RIFM) provide support and guidance on fragrance safety.
