Heidi Norton
Perfume is a mixture of fragrant essential oils, aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents, usually in liquid form, used to scent people, animals, objects, and spaces. The art of perfumery has evolved over the centuries, with modern perfumery relying heavily on synthetic chemicals for their versatility, consistency, and cost-effectiveness. Synthetic fragrances are typically derived from petroleum or modified from natural substances. While natural ingredients like flowers, fruits, and spices are still used, synthetic chemicals are often favoured for their ability to recreate natural scents and create original fragrances not found in nature, as well as their ease of production and reduced cost.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Number of flowering plant species with essential oils needed for perfume manufacture | 2,000 out of 250,000 |
| Natural ingredients | Flowers, grasses, spices, fruit, wood, roots, resins, balsams, leaves, gums, and animal secretions |
| Animal products | Castor from beavers, musk from male deer, and ambergris from sperm whales |
| Synthetic chemicals | Aldehydes, esters, and ketones, derived from petrochemicals |
| Synthetic fixatives | Nitro and polycyclic musks, aromatics, and synthetic polymers |
| Synthetic perfumes | Created in a laboratory by perfume chemists |
| Top notes | Lemon, orange, grapefruit, lime, bergamot, spearmint, peppermint, and others |
| Middle notes | Coriander, palmarosa, marjoram, basil, rosemary, rose geranium, pettitgrain, lavender, and others |
| Base notes | Patchouli, vetiver, frankincense, cedarwood, sandalwood, amber, oakmoss, and others |
| Dilution | Distilled/spring water and glycerine |
| Antioxidant | Butylated hydroxytoluene |
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What You'll Learn
Synthetic vs natural chemicals
The use of synthetic and natural chemicals in perfumery has evolved over the years, with synthetic chemicals becoming increasingly prevalent. Synthetic perfume chemicals are created in laboratories by perfume chemists, who synthesise aroma compounds to create fragrances. The first synthetic perfume, nitrobenzene, was made from nitric acid and benzene and had top notes of almond. This was followed by other synthetic compounds, such as coumarin, which captures the scent of freshly mown hay, and citronellol, which has notes of sweet pea, lily of the valley, narcissus and hyacinth.
Synthetic chemicals have allowed the perfume industry to reach a wider market due to their low cost and ability to produce large quantities. They also offer a larger scent palette for perfumers to work with, allowing for greater artistic liberty in fragrance creation. Additionally, synthetic perfumes have a longer shelf life than natural perfumes, lasting up to five years compared to the average of one to two years for natural perfumes. This is due to the use of fixatives, which prevent the rapid evaporation of volatile perfumes, thus increasing their longevity.
However, natural fragrances are still favoured in the finest perfumes and are often considered more desirable. Natural ingredients such as flowers, grasses, spices, fruits, wood, roots, resins, balsams, leaves, gums and animal secretions like musk and ambergris are used to create unique and complex scents. Natural fragrances are challenging to recreate consistently due to the impact of human interaction and climate change on their sources.
Today, most perfumes combine synthetic scent molecules with traditional essential oils, blending natural and synthetic ingredients to create iconic scents. This blend of natural and synthetic notes allows perfumers to take advantage of the benefits of both types of chemicals, resulting in fragrances that are aesthetically pleasing and commercially successful.
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The role of fixatives
Fixatives are crucial in determining the final fragrance profile of a perfume. They can significantly alter the scent, so perfumers must carefully select the appropriate type of fixative to achieve their desired outcome. Different types of fixatives have varying effects, and they can be categorized into four main groups based on their characteristics and olfactory behaviours. The first category consists of non-volatile substances that are easily compatible with other fragrances due to their mild aroma. These fixatives are added to help stabilize and prolong the aroma of volatile compounds, anchoring the scent to the skin.
The second category of fixatives, known as exalting fixatives, are used to enhance other notes present in the fragrance composition. Materials in this category include Tolu Balsam, Peru Balsam, and Vanilla, which add complexity, warmth, and depth to the fragrance. The third category of fixatives does not possess fixative capabilities but instead increases the boiling point of the perfume composition, paralyzing the odor of low-boiling materials. These materials are typically odorless or nearly odorless liquids that have a purely physical effect on the perfume.
The fourth category consists of fixatives that possess varying degrees of fixative properties, such as Isopropyl Myristate and Iso E Super. These fixatives can subtly alter the scent for the better, improve longevity, and give a more refined-smelling dry down. Some examples of commonly used fixatives include Dipropylene Glycol, Cyclopentadecanolide, Benzyl Salicylate, Benzoin, Sandalwood, Amber, Musk, Civet, and Castor. These fixatives are chosen for their ability to seamlessly blend into a perfume, enhance other notes, and increase the longevity of the fragrance.
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Extraction methods
The extraction of perfume from raw materials is a complex process that has evolved over time. While some ancient extraction methods are still used today, modern technology has also introduced newer and more efficient techniques. The most commonly used methods for extracting fragrant compounds from raw materials include distillation, solvent extraction, expression, sieving, and enfleurage.
Distillation
Distillation is an ancient technique that has been used in perfumery since the Middle Ages. It involves passing steam from boiling water through the raw material, which releases volatile fragrant compounds. The condensate, containing both water and aromatics, is collected in a Florentine flask. The fragrant oils then float to the top of the distillate and are easily separated from the water. This method is typically used for fresh plant materials such as flowers, leaves, and stems.
Solvent Extraction
Solvent extraction is a technique where plants are coated with a solvent such as benzene or petroleum, which dissolves the plant material, leaving behind a waxy substance containing the oils. The substance is then dissolved in ethyl alcohol, and the alcohol is burned off, resulting in perfume oil. This method is often used for flowers like jasmine, iris, and labdanum, which require solvent extraction to yield well.
Enfleurage
Enfleurage is a traditional method that was commonly used when distillation was not possible due to the heat sensitivity of certain fragrant compounds. This technique involves absorbing the odour of aromatic materials into wax or fat, which is then extracted with alcohol. While enfleurage was once a popular method, it is not widely used in modern industry due to its high cost and the availability of more efficient extraction processes.
Expression
Expression is an old mechanical extraction process that originated in the 19th century in Sicily. It is specifically used for citrus fruits, where the essential oil is extracted from the small glands in the peel, also known as the "zests" or "epicarp". High pressure is applied with the help of a press to obtain the liquid called the "absolute".
Supercritical CO2 Extraction
Supercritical CO2 extraction is a newer technique that employs supercritical CO2 as the extraction solvent. This method can extract fragrant compounds from raw materials, resulting in different fragrant notes.
The choice of extraction method depends on the type of raw material being used and the desired outcome. Each technique has its advantages and limitations, and perfumers may utilise a combination of these methods to create complex and unique fragrances.
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Aromatic chemicals
The use of aromatic chemicals in perfumes began in the mid-1800s with the introduction of synthetic chemicals. The first synthetic perfume was made from nitric acid and benzene and was called nitrobenzene. It had top notes of almond and was often used in scented soaps. Since then, synthetic chemicals have been increasingly used in perfume manufacturing, favoured for their versatility, consistency, and cost-effectiveness. They are also used to recreate natural scents that cannot be extracted from flowers, such as gardenia or hyacinth, and to create original fragrances not found in nature.
The specific aromatic chemicals used in a perfume are often not disclosed on the product label, as the composition of fragrances is sometimes protected as a trade secret. However, in 2010, the International Fragrance Association published a list of 3,059 chemicals used in fragrance production, identifying about 90% of the world's production volume of fragrances.
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Toxic chemicals
Perfumes are a mixture of fragrant essential oils or aroma compounds, fixatives, and solvents, usually in liquid form. They are used to give the human body, animals, food, objects, and living spaces a pleasant scent. Perfumes can be defined as substances that emit and diffuse a pleasant and fragrant odour.
Perfumes are made from natural ingredients such as flowers, grasses, spices, fruit, wood, roots, resins, balsams, leaves, gums, and animal secretions, like musk and ambergis. However, due to the fact that many plants, such as the lily-of-the-valley, do not produce oils naturally, synthetic chemicals are used to recreate natural scents and create original fragrances not found in nature.
The use of synthetic chemicals in perfumes began in the mid-1800s, with the first synthetic perfume made from nitric acid and benzene and called nitrobenzene. Today, millions of perfume brands release new fragrances, and synthetic chemicals are favoured over natural oils due to their lower cost and encouragement of more frequent use.
However, the use of synthetic chemicals in perfumes has raised concerns about their potential toxicity and impact on health. Fragrance suppliers have long enjoyed federal trade secret protections that allow them to hide the ingredients in their products, resulting in incomplete information for consumers and regulators. Studies have found that fragrance chemicals made up the majority of the chemicals linked to harmful chronic health effects, including cancer, birth defects, and hormone disruption.
Some specific toxic chemicals that have been identified in perfumes include:
- Methyl paraben (MP)
- Butyl paraben (BP)
- Ethyl paraben (EP)
- Propyl paraben (PP)
- Diethyl phthalate
- Dimethyl phthalate
- Triclosan
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Frequently asked questions
Natural ingredients such as flowers, grasses, spices, fruits, wood, roots, resins, balsams, leaves, gums, and animal secretions are used in the manufacture of perfumes. Alcohol, petrochemicals, coal, and coal tars are also used.
Synthetic chemicals are used to recreate natural scents and create original fragrances not found in nature. They are favoured for their versatility, consistency, and cost-effectiveness.
The use of synthetic chemicals has made the process of creating perfumes faster and more affordable, allowing for more widespread and frequent use.
The first synthetic perfume was nitrobenzene, made from nitric acid and benzene. Other examples include synthetic violet and vanilla, and an alcohol called citronellol, which has aromatic notes of sweet pea, lily of the valley, narcissus, and hyacinth.
