Lance Carson
The art of making perfume has evolved over the centuries, from ancient civilisations infusing oils with aromatic flowers and wood to modern techniques that utilise synthetic chemicals. The process of creating a fragrance is a combination of art and science, requiring careful extraction of oils, blending, aging, and quality control. Today, perfumes are often made by extracting scented oils from natural ingredients such as plants, fruits, woods, and even animal secretions, or by using synthetic chemicals to emulate certain scents. The history of perfume is a fascinating journey that has shaped the way we use fragrances today.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| History of Perfume | Ancient civilizations used scented oils and perfumes. The ancient Egyptians burned incense made of henna, myrrh, cinnamon and juniper for religious rituals. The art of making perfume spread from ancient Greece to Rome, the Orient, the Far East, and eventually Europe. |
| The first synthetic perfume was made in the mid-1800s from nitric acid and benzene. | |
| Ingredients | Natural ingredients: flowers, fruits, spices, woods, plant and animal-based oils, alcohol, coal, tars, petrochemicals. |
| Synthetic ingredients: aromachemicals, coumarin, hedione, galaxolide, ambroxan, calone, Iso E Super, etc. | |
| Process | Collecting ingredients, extracting oils (using solvent extraction, steam distillation, expression, etc.), blending, aging, and quality control. |
| Notes | Top notes: initial scent that disappears (e.g. citrus). Middle notes: appear after the top note (e.g. coriander, lavender). Base notes: appear last and form the base (e.g. cedarwood). |
| Dilution | Dilute with distilled/spring water and glycerine to preserve the fragrance. |
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What You'll Learn
The history of perfume
In ancient Greece and Rome, perfume became a symbol of luxury. The Greeks used floral oils to scent their clothes, and the Romans bathed in aromatic waters. Pliny the Elder described the rose as "a flower that grows everywhere", and rose fragrances were considered light. Theophrastus observed that any bruising of a plant, likely referring to physical damage, could impact its odour. The ancient Greeks also used spices and resins for perfumery, as well as the roots of plants.
The world's first recorded chemist is believed to be a woman named Tapputi, a perfume maker in Babylonian Mesopotamia around 1200 BCE. She developed methods for scent extraction that laid the foundation for future perfume-making.
The Persians also played a significant role in the history of perfume. The Persian chemist Ibn Sina, also known as Avicenna, introduced the process of extracting oils from flowers by distillation, which remains the most common procedure today. Before his discovery, liquid perfumes were typically blends of oil with crushed herbs or petals, resulting in a strong fragrance. Rose water, which Avicenna first experimented with, offered a more delicate scent and quickly gained popularity.
During the Middle Ages, perfume-making flourished in the Islamic world, where chemists refined the art of distillation to extract essential oils. The Islamic invasion of Spain and Southern Italy in 711 and 827 CE reinvigorated perfumery in Western Europe, with the Islamic-controlled cities of Spain becoming major producers and traders of perfumes throughout the Old World. Crusaders returning to Europe in the 11th and 12th centuries brought with them Arabian perfumes, further influencing Western perfumery.
The mass marketing of perfume began in the mid-1800s, coinciding with the introduction of synthetic chemicals. The first synthetic perfume, nitrobenzene, was crafted from nitric acid and benzene, featuring almond-scented top notes.
Today, the process of creating a perfume involves concept development, sourcing raw materials, extracting oils, blending, aging, and quality control. Many modern perfumes continue to utilise ancient methods, albeit with refined techniques and mixtures.
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Natural ingredients
Natural perfume ingredients are derived from plants, fruits, woods, and even animal secretions. Natural ingredients are often difficult to harvest, and some are troublesome to collect, such as animal oils.
Essential oils are a key natural ingredient in perfume-making. These oils are typically obtained through solvent extraction, steam distillation, expression, enfleurage, or maceration. Expression involves pressing or squeezing the plant to release its oils, while enfleurage involves placing flowers or organic material in a fat or oil base to extract the fragrance. Ancient civilizations used the enfleurage method, placing flowers in fats to extract their fragrances.
Aldehydes are another important group of organic compounds used in perfumery. These compounds are usually fruity and are present in many natural materials, such as musky red rose, vanilla, dry orange rind, woody pine essence, citronella, and cinnamon essential oils.
Natural perfumes can be made using essential oils, infused oils, and even flavour extracts such as vanilla. Top notes of a perfume include scents like lemon, orange, grapefruit, lime, and peppermint, while middle notes include coriander, palmarosa, basil, and lavender. Base notes, which create an enduring fragrance, include patchouli, vetiver, cedarwood, and sandalwood.
To make a natural perfume, one can use vodka, essential oils, and distilled water. The essential oils are blended first, and then alcohol is added. The mixture is then left in a dark place for a week to allow the scents to blend.
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Synthetic ingredients
Synthetic perfume compounds were first developed in the 1860s, with the first synthetic fragrance molecule, nitrobenzene, presented in 1851. However, it was later discovered to be toxic in 1865, creating a fear of synthetic fragrances. Despite this, synthetic perfumes have become increasingly common, with the first synthetic perfumes being used for mass marketing in the late 1800s.
Synthetic compounds are used to recreate natural scents that are difficult or impossible to extract from their natural sources, such as lily of the valley, musk, and vanilla. They also allow for the creation of unique fragrances, such as sweet pea, narcissus, and hyacinth. Synthetic musks, in particular, were discovered by accident and have been widely used as replacements for natural musk due to their similar olfactory effects while requiring smaller quantities.
Synthetic alternatives to endangered natural ingredients, such as musk and sandalwood, are also being developed to reduce the environmental impact of the perfume industry. As consumers become more environmentally conscious, the industry is shifting towards sustainable practices, including the use of synthetic ingredients to create eco-friendly and ethically sourced perfumes.
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Extraction methods
Extraction is a key step in the process of creating perfumes. It involves separating and capturing aromatic compounds from raw materials, such as flowers, plants, and resins. The choice of extraction method depends on the nature of the raw material and the desired fragrance profile. Here are some commonly used extraction methods:
Solvent Extraction
Solvent extraction is a popular technique for extracting delicate and heat-sensitive aromatic compounds, especially from flowers like jasmine and tuberose. In this process, the raw material is mixed with a solvent, typically hexane, ethanol, benzene or petroleum. The solvent dissolves the aromatic compounds, along with waxes and pigments, resulting in a substance called a "concrete". The concrete is then treated with alcohol to separate and extract the aromatic compounds, yielding an "absolute". Solvent extraction is versatile and can be used for a wide range of raw materials, including woody and fibrous plant materials, as well as animal sources.
Enfleurage
Enfleurage is a traditional method of perfume extraction that has been practiced since ancient times. It involves using a fatty substance, such as wax or fat, to naturally absorb the odours of aromatic materials. There are two types of enfleurage: cold and hot. Cold enfleurage is suitable for fragile plants and flowers, where the grease is spread on a glass frame and covered with flowers, which are changed every 24 to 48 hours until the grease absorbs the perfume. Hot enfleurage, also known as maceration, involves infusing heat-resistant flowers and fragrant raw materials in a fatty substance preheated to between 40°C and 60°C. The mixture is stirred for about 2 hours, resulting in a pomade that is then filtered and decanted with alcohol to obtain an "absolue". While enfleurage was once common, it has been largely replaced by more efficient and cost-effective methods.
Expression
Expression is a mechanical extraction process that has been used since the 19th century, particularly for citrus fruits. It involves applying high pressure with a press to extract the essential oil or essence from the small glands found in the peel of the fruit. This process preserves the original smell of the raw material without altering it.
Distillation
Distillation is an ancient technique that has been refined over the centuries. It is commonly used to extract essential oils from aromatic plants, such as lavender, rose, jasmine, patchouli, and sandalwood. The process involves heating and condensing the plant material, resulting in floral water and essential oil. Fractionation techniques can be applied to separate the different components of the essential oil, creating more complex fragrances. Steam distillation is a type of distillation used to extract resins from tree bark.
Supercritical CO2 Extraction
This method uses supercritical fluids, primarily CO2, as a solvent to extract essential oils from raw materials. When CO2 is in its supercritical state, between liquid and gas, it penetrates the material to extract volatile oils, resulting in an essential oil. This process is more expensive than traditional distillation but allows for a more natural scent and can be used for ingredients that are difficult to extract through other methods.
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Blending and ageing
Blending is a key part of the perfume-making process. When mixing a perfume, adding scents from neighbouring families creates harmony in the perfume. The perfume's fragrance oils are blended with ethyl alcohol and water. The top, middle, and base notes of a fragrance may have separate primary scents and supporting ingredients. The base notes are added first, followed by the middle notes and then the top notes. Top notes are the initial scent when you put the perfume on, which then disappears. Examples of top notes include lemon, orange, grapefruit, and lime. Middle notes appear just after the top note disappears and can include coriander, palmarosa, and basil. Base notes appear after the middle note and include scents such as patchouli, vetiver, and cedarwood.
After blending, the perfume is left to age in tanks for several weeks or months, and sometimes even years. This process allows the different scents, or notes, to blend together. It also allows for the permanent bonding of the alcohol and the essential oils. The perfume is kept undisturbed in a cool, dark area. At the end of the ageing period, an expert is called in to test the scent. The perfume is then cooled and filtered before being bottled.
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Frequently asked questions
Perfumes are made from a variety of natural ingredients, including various plants, fruits, woods, flowers, blossoms, spices, and even animal secretions. Synthetic chemicals are used to emulate scents that don't occur in nature or don't produce essential oils.
Making perfume involves collecting ingredients, extracting oils, blending, aging, and quality control. The extracted oils are blended with ethyl alcohol and water, aged in tanks for several weeks or months, and then filtered before being bottled.
A perfume typically has three distinct notes: a top note, a middle or heart note, and a base note. The top note is the initial scent that disappears quickly, the middle note appears after the top note, and the base note is the foundation of the perfume that appears last and has the most enduring fragrance.
