Heidi Norton
Chinese incense is an aromatic biotic material that releases fragrant smoke when burnt. It is made from diverse ingredients, with a lot of overlap with traditional Chinese herbal pharmacopoeia. The practice of using incense in China dates back to the Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD), where it was used to fragrance rooms and garments, and play a central role in Buddhist worship. The creation of incense sticks is believed to have originated in the Song dynasty (960-1279), although the name stick incense was not used until the Yuan dynasty. Today, Chinese incense is made by harvesting and drying bamboo, which is then manually trimmed, soaked, peeled, and split into thin sticks. The dough is then either hand-rolled around the bamboo sticks or extruded through machines. The sticks are then straightened and dried, before additional coatings of incense mixture can be applied.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| History | The use of incense in China dates back to the Han dynasty (206 BC–AD 220) and the Warring States period. |
| Ingredients | Chinese incense is made from diverse ingredients, including flowers, peppers, wood, spices, and plant materials. Common ingredients include aloeswood, sandalwood, camphor, musk, and dried powdered bark. |
| Form | Incense can take various forms, including sticks, coils, cones, and balls. The most common form is sticks, which are made by coating bamboo sticks with incense powder or paste and allowing them to dry. |
| Uses | Incense is used in Chinese culture for religious ceremonies, ancestor veneration, traditional medicine, and daily life. It is also used for aromatherapy, meditation, and creating a pleasant aroma. |
| Production | The creation of Chinese incense is a traditional art that has embraced modern advancements. The process involves selecting and preparing bamboo sticks, coating them with incense powder or paste, and drying them. |
| Burners | Various burners and utensils are used to burn incense, such as censers, egōro or shǒulú, and special small tables. |
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What You'll Learn
History of Chinese incense
The history of Chinese incense is a rich tapestry that dates back to ancient China, with the earliest documented use of incense in the Han Dynasty (206 BC–220 AD). The Chinese term for incense, "xiang" (香), also means "fragrance", "scent", "aroma", "perfume", or "spice". Incense was used by Chinese cultures from Neolithic times and became more widespread in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. During the Han Dynasty, there was increased trade and acquisition of more fragrant foreign incense materials when local incense materials were considered inferior.
The practice of burning incense was introduced to China by a group of wandering Buddhist monks around 200 CE, and it began to be used in the religious sense for worship. The earliest vessels identified as censers (incense burners) date to the mid-fifth to late fourth centuries BCE during the Warring States period. The modern Chinese term for "censer" is "xianglu" (香爐, "incense burner"), and early designs were often crafted as a round, single-footed stemmed basin, believed to have derived from earlier ritual bronzes. One of the most celebrated early incense burner designs is the hill censer (boshanlu 博山爐), which became popular during the reign of Emperor Wu of Han (141–87 BCE). These vessels were designed with apertures that made the rising smoke appear like mist swirling around a mountain peak.
Incense reached its height during the Song Dynasty (960-1279), when it was a significant part of social and economic life. The nobility enjoyed incense as a popular cultural pastime, even building rooms specifically for incense ceremonies. The creation of incense sticks is believed to have originated in the Song Dynasty, although the term "stick incense" was not used until the Yuan Dynasty. The burning of stick incense also led to the use of smaller and un-lidded incense holders.
Traditional Chinese incense is often shaped into small balls instead of sticks, and an electric burner is used to enjoy the smell from low to high temperatures. The most common type of bamboo used for producing the sticks is Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens (茅竹,江南竹), as this species produces thick wood and burns easily into ashes. The bamboo is harvested and dried, then manually trimmed, soaked, peeled, and split into thin sticks. The incense dough is then hand-rolled or extruded through machines around the bamboo sticks, straightened, and laid out to dry.
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Ingredients and their medicinal properties
Chinese incense is made from diverse ingredients, with many overlapping with traditional Chinese herbal pharmacopoeia. There are over 400 types of incense ingredients used in Chinese incense, and over 100 incense blends that are fairly commonly used.
Before the 6th century, four ingredients were commonly used: Lan & Hui flowers, Sichuan Peppers, and Cassia. Lan flowers have held a special place in Chinese culture for centuries, believed to have been cultivated for palaces and gardens for over two thousand years. Hui flowers are close sisters to the Lan flowers and have been cultivated and written about abundantly since ancient times.
After the 6th century, the four main ingredients became: Aloeswood, Sandalwood, Camphor, and Musk. Other ingredients include Zhangnao (or Camphor), the dried powdered bark of Persea nanmu, and various types of bamboo. Bamboo is used for producing the sticks, with the most common type being Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens, as this species produces thick wood and easily burns to ashes in the incense stick.
Some of the ingredients used in Chinese incense and their medicinal properties include:
- Sandalwood: Used in the Japanese tea ceremony, and in traditional Chinese medicine for moxibustion.
- Aloeswood: Also referred to as agarwood, jinko/jinkoh (Japanese) or oud/oudh (Arabic).
- Camphor: According to the Bencao Gangmu pharmacopoeia, "camphor cured evil vapors in the heart and belly, and was especially recommended for eye troubles, including cataract."
- Lan & Hui flowers: These flowers have been used in palaces and gardens for over two thousand years.
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Incense-making process
The creation of Chinese incense is a meticulous and traditional art. The process of making incense sticks involves selecting bamboo, primarily sourced from the Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens variety, which is known for its thick wood and ability to burn completely into ashes. The bamboo is harvested and dried, then manually trimmed, soaked, peeled, and split into thin sticks. The sticks are then gently rolled and packed to maintain roundness while incense powder is repeatedly tossed onto them. Three to four layers of powder are coated, forming a 2-millimetre-thick layer of incense material. The coated incense is then left to dry in the open air.
The Lin-xiang process involves tossing incense powder over wet sticks. In the Nuo-xiang process, incense paste is kneaded around sticks. For large incense pillars, incense paste is piled and sculpted around a single bamboo stick.
To make flammable incense, ingredients are powdered and blended, then mixed with water and formed into shape. The incense powder is formed into the final product through various methods. For direct-burning incense, the mixture is cut and dried into pellets. The tip of the incense is then ignited with a flame until it begins to turn into ash, after which the flame is extinguished, leaving the incense to smoulder.
Indirect-burning incense is burned directly on top of a heat source or on a hot metal plate in a censer or thurible. In Japan and China, a similar censer called a shǒulú is used by several Buddhist traditions. The shǒulú is usually made of brass, with a long handle and no chain. Instead of charcoal, makkō powder is poured into a depression made in a bed of ash. The makkō is lit, and the incense mixture is burned on top.
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Incense burners and utensils
The Mandarin term for incense burner is "xiang lu", or "fragrant pot", reflecting the connection between incense and nourishment. Indeed, incense burners were designed with apertures that made the rising smoke appear like clouds or mist swirling around a mountain peak, with the smoke embodying a representation of the godly realm.
The earliest incense burners were made of clay and date back to the Neolithic period, with a bamboo-patterned clay burner unearthed from the Shanghai Qingpu district's Fuquan Shan site. By the Warring States period, incense burner designs had become more sophisticated, with the iconic Boshan Lu, or Boshan burners, becoming popular during the reign of Emperor Wu of the Han Dynasty. These burners were made of bronze with inlaid gold highlights, showcasing classic Chinese mountain scenery. The Han dynasty scholar Liu Xiang composed an inscription describing a hill censer: "I value this perfect utensil, lofty and steep as a mountain!".
In the Song dynasty, minimal porcelain incense holders became the norm, and the Ming dynasty saw the creation of the Xuan De lu. Other popular designs include censers shaped like birds or animals, small "scenting globes" (xiangqiu), and handheld censers (shoulu). Large censers, sometimes made to resemble ancient ritual bronze vessels, are often placed in the courtyards of Buddhist and Daoist temples.
Implements commonly used for burning incense include a box, a burner, a flat-bowled spoon and tongs, and a vase for storing these utensils. The art of incense burning, xiangdao, involves various paraphernalia and utensils in various ceramic containers. Examples include tongs, spatulas, and special moulds to create ideograms with incense powder, all placed on a small table.
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Incense in religion and culture
Incense plays a significant role in various religious and cultural traditions, especially in China. In Chinese culture, incense is deeply rooted in the country's spiritual and ceremonial practices. It is commonly used in religious rituals, ceremonies, and traditional events, where it is believed to possess symbolic and spiritual significance.
One of the prominent uses of incense in Chinese religion is in ancestor worship. Incense burning is considered a way to honour and pay respect to deceased ancestors and family members. It is believed that the smoke from the incense acts as a conduit between the living and the dead, carrying prayers and offerings to the spirits of the ancestors. During important festivals such as Qingming Festival and Chongyang Festival, incense burning is a common practice as people visit their ancestral graves to pay their respects.
In Chinese Buddhism, incense holds great significance as well. It is believed that the aroma of incense helps to create a sacred and serene atmosphere, aiding in meditation and spiritual practice. Incense is often burned in front of Buddhist statues and images as a form of offering and devotion. The act of offering incense is seen as a way to accumulate merit and purify one's karma. Moreover, in Buddhist temples, the thick smoke of burning incense is thought to help ward off evil spirits and bring blessings and good fortune.
Taoism, another major religion in China, also incorporates the use of incense in its practices. Incense burning is believed to purify the surroundings and promote spiritual growth. Taoist rituals often involve the use of incense to invite deities and pay homage to them. The smoke is thought to carry prayers and invocations to the heavens, seeking blessings and guidance from the divine beings.
Apart from its religious significance, incense also holds cultural value in China. In traditional Chinese medicine, certain types of incense are believed to possess medicinal properties and are used to treat various ailments. The aroma of incense is also associated with creating a calming and harmonious environment, promoting well-being and balance. In Chinese art and literature, incense has been a source of inspiration, with its fragrance and ephemeral nature often serving as metaphors for beauty, spirituality, and the fleeting nature of life.
Overall, incense holds a significant place in Chinese religion and culture, with its use spanning across various traditions and practices. It serves as a symbolic and ritualistic tool, connecting people to their spiritual beliefs, ancestors, and cultural heritage. The act of burning incense continues to be an integral part of Chinese ceremonial life, preserving and perpetuating the country's rich cultural traditions.
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Frequently asked questions
Chinese incense is made from diverse ingredients, with much overlap with traditional Chinese herbal pharmacopoeia. Some of the most common ingredients include camphor, the dried powdered bark of Persea nanmu, and fragrant leaves. Before the 6th century, four ingredients were popular: Lan & Hui flowers, Sichuan Peppers, and Cassia. After that, the main four ingredients became: Aloeswood, Sandalwood, Camphor, and Musk.
The process of making Chinese incense is meticulous and traditional, with a long history. The creation of incense sticks involves selecting bamboo, primarily sourced from the Phyllostachys heterocycla cv. pubescens variety, known for its thick wood and excellent burning properties. The bamboo is harvested and dried, then manually trimmed, soaked, peeled, and split into thin sticks. The dough is then hand-rolled around the bamboo sticks or extruded through machines. The freshly shaped incense sticks are straightened to prevent bending and then laid out to dry.
The earliest documented use of incense was in ancient China, and the first known Chinese aromatics book was written approximately 2,500 years ago in the Han Dynasty (206 BC–AD 220). The use of incense in China began in the religious sense around 2000 BCE and became more widespread in the Xia, Shang, and Zhou dynasties. The creation of incense sticks is believed to have originated in the Song dynasty (960–1279 CE), although the name "stick incense" was not used until the Yuan dynasty.
