Anisha Riggs
Humans have long been fascinated by the fragrances of plants, using them to create perfumes, flavour enhancers, and insect repellents. But how do these scents affect plants themselves? Plants have evolved to release volatile compounds, which are responsible for their unique smells, to attract pollinators and deter herbivores. Recent studies have also shown that plant fragrances can have a positive impact on human mental health, contributing to a sense of well-being and stress reduction. Understanding the mechanisms behind the production and release of these volatile compounds can provide insights into their effects on both plants and humans.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| How perfume affects plants | Plants attract pollinators with their scents and also reward them with nectar |
| Scents also attract herbivores that damage the plants | |
| Some plants have evolved to not produce scent or nectar | |
| Some plants have scents that can affect human health and reduce stress | |
| Humans have collected fragrant plants for thousands of years to produce perfumes, flavour enhancers and insect repellents | |
| The compounds that create scent in plants are called volatiles | |
| Volatiles are released by plants to attract pollinators, deter herbivores, and communicate with other plants | |
| Volatiles also protect plants from high light, temperature and oxidative stress | |
| ABC transporters are necessary for plant volatiles to cross membranes and diffuse their smell |
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What You'll Learn
How perfumes can attract pollinators
Plants have evolved to synthesize and release volatiles, or chemical compounds, that are responsible for their unique fragrances. These fragrances play a crucial role in attracting pollinators, which is essential for plant reproductive success.
Floral scents can signal landing and rewarding sites for pollinators, attracting them from a long distance. Pollinators, such as bees, beetles, and moths, have olfactory organs that detect these floral scents. For example, native bees prefer sweet-smelling blooms, while moths are attracted to powerful sweet perfumes of wildflowers like evening primroses.
Some plants, like the fragrant water-lily, emit pleasant fragrances that attract pollinators. However, not all plants rely solely on scents; some, like birds and most butterflies, attract pollinators with colourful and distinctively shaped flowers. Additionally, certain plants, such as red trilliums, produce fragrances that mimic the smell of carrion or dung, attracting flies as pollinators.
The intensity of floral fragrances can be enhanced by reflected heat from structures like walls or patios. Furthermore, the release of these volatile compounds may be mediated by biological mechanisms involving transporters, as seen in the Petunia hybrida, which emits high levels of volatile compounds at night to attract hawkmoth pollinators.
By understanding the interplay between floral scents and pollinators, we can create fragrant gardens with native plants that entice a variety of pollinators, supporting their crucial role in plant reproduction.
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How perfumes can deter herbivores
The fragrance of plants, or their "perfume", is made up of chemical compounds called volatiles. These compounds are released by plants in response to damage by herbivores. Volatiles are one of the key players in plant communication and defense. They help attract pollinators and deter herbivores, as well as protect plants from high light, temperature, and oxidative stress.
There is ample evidence that volatiles can directly repel herbivores, such as ovipositing butterflies and host-seeking aphids. They also protect plants by attracting the enemies of herbivores, such as parasitic wasps, predatory arthropods, and possibly even insectivorous birds.
However, it is important to note that volatiles can also attract enemies of plants, and the production of these compounds requires energy and nutrients that could otherwise be used for growth or reproduction. Therefore, more research is needed to fully understand the defensive significance of plant volatiles in nature.
While this refers to the natural perfumes of plants, it is worth noting that human-made perfumes can also be used to deter insects. For example, certain fragrances, such as those with strong notes of mint and eucalyptus, can aid in keeping bugs at bay. Essential oils, in particular, are thought to hold insect-repelling properties. However, it is recommended to opt for perfumes that contain these notes rather than applying essential oils directly to the skin. Sweet and floral scents, on the other hand, can often attract insects.
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How perfumes can be used in therapy
The sense of smell has been known to influence human psychophysiological activity, with fragrances affecting spontaneous brain activity and cognitive functions. The use of fragrances in therapy, or perfumery, is an extension of aromatherapy, which was coined by French chemist Rene-Maurice Gattefosse in the 1920s. Aromatherapy refers to the use of natural fragrance essential oils to treat injuries and diseases.
Perfumetherapy works through olfactory archetypes, such as the smells of certain animal species, spices, citruses, and flowers, that are imprinted in our genes. These scents trigger certain behaviors or physical reactions, such as the energizing effect of lemon. The olfactory stimulus of particular smells activates certain glands in the endocrine system, inducing them to produce neuro-chemicals like adrenalin and endorphins, which regulate our physiological equilibrium or homeostasis.
Perfumes can also enhance feelings of well-being by triggering the body to relax, reducing stress, and elevating spirits. Fragrances can unlock memories and have been used to help people suffering from memory loss. For example, the Essential Awakenings® Smell and Memory kits are used as recreational therapy to engage residents in assisted living communities in stimulating conversation and to connect them with their families and caregivers.
Additionally, large companies have developed methods to scientifically measure the reaction that scent has on mood. For instance, Takasago measured brain waves to study the impact of scent on mood. Perfumes with specific molecular properties can be used to deliver a variety of benefits for human physical and psychological well-being.
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How perfumes can be extracted from plants
The process of fragrance extraction involves separating aromatic compounds from raw materials. The results of the extracts are either essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, depending on the amount of wax in the extracted product.
One method of fragrance extraction is enfleurage, which uses fat to absorb fragrant oils from plants. This process requires no special equipment and can be performed at home. To do this, melt lard or vegetable shortening and pour the melted fat into a large dinner plate to a depth of half an inch. Allow the fat to cool and solidify, then cut several crisscross patterns across the fat. Pick freshly opened blossoms or herbs and shake the petals or leaves over the fat on the plate. Place a second plate upside down over the first plate so that the petals are covered with fat on both sides. Tape the plates together and set them aside in a safe, warm place for two days. After two days, open the plates, remove the wilted plant materials, and repeat the process with fresh plants. Repeat this process six to eight times until the fat is very fragrant.
Another method of fragrance extraction is solvent extraction, which involves placing plants into a rotating drum and coating them with a solvent such as benzene or petroleum. The solvent dissolves the plants, leaving behind a waxy substance containing the oils. The substance is then dissolved in ethyl alcohol, which is burned off to produce perfume oil.
A third method is steam distillation, which involves heating botanical materials so that their essential oils evaporate with the steam. The compounds are then collected through the condensation of the distilled vapour. This method is commonly used for extracting fragrances from roses, orange blossoms, geraniums, and many other ingredients.
Finally, supercritical fluid extraction is a relatively new technique that employs supercritical CO2 as the extraction solvent. When carbon dioxide is put under high pressure at slightly above room temperature, it forms a supercritical fluid that can be used to extract hydrophobic aromatics from plant material. This process is similar to one of the techniques for making decaffeinated coffee. The fragrant compounds derived from this method often closely resemble the original odour of the raw material.
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How perfumes can be used to repel insects
While perfumes with sweet and floral scents, such as vanilla, fruity, and floral notes, can attract insects, certain fragrance notes in perfumes can help repel them. Karla Wooley, Head of Buying at The Perfume Shop, recommends applying fragrances to pulse points on the body, such as the wrists, neck, behind the ears, and ankles, as these areas emit heat, helping to diffuse the fragrance and potentially repel insects.
Opting for perfumes with essential oils that hold insect-repelling properties can be effective. Scents that lean towards the citrus end of the spectrum, with notes of lemon, lemon verbena, and grapefruit, can help repel mosquitoes, bees, and wasps by interfering with their respiratory systems. Woody vetiver and zesty citrus notes in Prada's perfume create a vibrant yet grounded fragrance that can be a great option for repelling insects.
Additionally, lavender and mint are widely considered fragrance notes that insects dislike. A lavender perfume from L'Occitane or a zingy scent from Molton Brown with eucalyptus and cardamom notes can be good choices for repelling insects. It is worth noting that Victoria's Secret Bombshell perfume has also been found to effectively repel mosquitoes.
While perfumes can help repel insects, they should not be solely relied upon for insect protection. Using unscented products or proven insect repellents can provide better protection, especially against disease-carrying insects like mosquitoes and ticks.
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Frequently asked questions
The effects of perfume on plants are not clear, however, it is known that plants themselves emit volatile compounds to attract pollinators and deter herbivores.
Volatiles are small compounds that plants synthesize and release, which are responsible for their characteristic smells.
It is presumed that volatiles freely diffuse across each of the plant cell barriers: the plasma membrane, the cell wall, and the cuticle. Recent research has shown that ABC transporters are necessary for plant volatiles to cross membranes and diffuse their smell.
Petunia hybrida, tobacco plants, and wild tobacco plants are some examples of plants that emit volatile compounds.
