Seamus Hammond
Creating perfumes involves art and science, with perfumers using various traditional and modern methods to capture the essence of flowers, woods, resins, and more. The process of fragrance extraction involves separating aromatic compounds from raw materials using techniques such as distillation, solvent extraction, expression, sieving, or enfleurage. The results of these extraction methods produce essential oils, absolutes, concretes, or butters, each with unique characteristics and applications. While some ancient extraction methods are still used today, modern technology has also introduced more efficient and effective techniques, such as supercritical fluid extraction, headspace technology, and synthetic molecule creation.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Traditional Methods | Expression, distillation, enfleurage, solvent extraction, sieving |
| Modern Methods | Supercritical CO2 extraction, fractional distillation, headspace |
| Raw Materials | Plants, flowers, woods, resins, roots, tree moss, citrus fruits |
| Results | Essential oils, absolutes, concretes, butters, synthetic perfume ingredients |
| Techniques | Mechanical, manual, industrial |
| Temperature | 30°C to 100°C |
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What You'll Learn
- Expression: Raw materials are pressed, squeezed, or mechanically treated to collect essential oils
- Distillation: Botanical materials are heated, and their essential oils are collected through condensation
- Enfleurage: A traditional method using a fatty substance to absorb odours
- Solvent extraction: Raw materials are mixed with a solvent to dissolve aromatic compounds
- Headspace: A method to capture the scent of objects using a domed airtight container
Expression: Raw materials are pressed, squeezed, or mechanically treated to collect essential oils
Expression is a traditional mechanical extraction process that began in the 19th century in Sicily. It is used to extract essential oils from the peels of citrus fruits. The raw materials are pressed, squeezed, or mechanically treated to collect the essential oils.
Citrus fruits are fragile and can only be stored for about six months. After harvest, they are processed by molecular distillation to remove photosensitizing principles such as bergapten or furocoumarin, which cause stains when exposed to the sun.
The expression technique is used to extract the essence contained in the peel of citrus fruits, also known as "zests" or "epicarp". The process involves subjecting the fruit to high pressure with the help of a press to obtain a liquid called the "absolute". This process does not alter the basic product, so the smell remains intact and is best preserved.
In the past, the process was carried out manually using a so-called "sponge" method. The citrus fruit was cut in half, the pulp was removed, and the skin was moistened well. After letting it sit for about 10 hours, the essence was pressed onto a set of sponges. This method has now been replaced by industrialization, where the whole fruit is pressed, and a centrifuge is used to separate the juice and essential oil.
Expression is a simple yet effective method for extracting high-quality citrus essential oils. It is primarily used for citrus oils and some fruits, as it does not involve heat, which helps maintain the integrity and freshness of the oil.
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Distillation: Botanical materials are heated, and their essential oils are collected through condensation
Distillation is a traditional method of extracting fragrant compounds from botanical materials. It involves heating raw plant matter, such as flowers, leaves, wood, bark, roots, seeds, or peels, to obtain essential oils.
The process of distillation involves placing the raw plant material in a distillation apparatus, known as an alembic, over water. Steam from the boiling water is passed through the plant material for 60 to 105 minutes, causing the volatile fragrant compounds to vaporize. The steam carries the fragrant compounds through a coil, where a refrigeration system allows the vapour to condense. This condensation is then collected, resulting in essential oils or floral water.
Different types of distillation techniques are used in perfumery, including steam distillation, water distillation, and solvent distillation. Steam distillation is the most commonly used technique, where natural plant or flower elements are introduced to steam, causing the fragrant oils to vaporize. The resulting haze or mist is then condensed through cooling equipment, and the essential oil is collected. Water distillation involves draping the natural element over water and heating the water to produce steam, while solvent distillation uses a solvent to extract the essential oil.
The quality and fragrance of the essential oil depend on various factors, including the plant used, the distillation technique, temperature, pressure, and distillation time. Fractional distillation allows for the extraction of specific molecules from natural ingredients, resulting in perfume molecules that are qualified as 'natural' or even organically certified.
Distillation has been used since ancient times, with the Greeks being the first to invent it. It is an essential method in the perfume industry for extracting essential oils and aromatic components from plants, with modern techniques being developed in the Middle Ages by Arab alchemists.
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Enfleurage: A traditional method using a fatty substance to absorb odours
Enfleurage is a traditional method of perfume extraction that has been practised since ancient times. It involves using a fatty substance to naturally absorb the odours or fragrant compounds of flowers. The process can be "cold" or "hot" enfleurage.
In cold enfleurage, a large glass plate or chassis is smeared with a layer of odourless fat, such as animal fat (lard or tallow), or plant-based fats like coconut oil. The fat is allowed to set, and then flowers or petals are placed on top. Over the course of 1-3 days, the scent of the flowers diffuses into the fat. This process is repeated with fresh flowers until the fat reaches the desired degree of fragrance saturation, which can take up to 60 days. The fat is then called "enfleurage pomade".
Hot enfleurage involves heating the solid fats and stirring the botanical matter into them. This method is typically used for flowers like rose, mimosa, and orange blossoms.
Once the enfleurage pomade is created, it can be sold as-is or further processed. The pomade can be washed or soaked in alcohol to extract the fragrant molecules, leaving behind the absolute of the botanical matter. The spent fat can be used to make soaps.
Enfleurage is a time-consuming and costly process, but it was once the only method to extract fragrant compounds from delicate flowers such as jasmine, tuberose, and gardenia, which cannot withstand the high temperatures of other extraction methods like steam distillation. Today, enfleurage is primarily used by artisans who value the handcrafted nature and true-to-life fragrance of this traditional technique.
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Solvent extraction: Raw materials are mixed with a solvent to dissolve aromatic compounds
Solvent extraction is a process used in perfumery to separate aromatic compounds from raw materials. This method involves dissolving the perfume of the plant in a solvent, which is then evaporated. The solvent used is typically odourless, like carbon dioxide, or ethanol, hexane, and benzene. The raw material is heated to around 30°C, and the temperature can go up to 100°C for the extraction of perfume from certain plants.
This technique has been used since the 18th century, but it was not widely adopted until the 19th century due to the use of flammable products. The process involves placing flowers in a large vat called an extractor, which is then closed. The extractor contains plates stacked at different levels, pierced with small holes to prevent the plants from being crushed. The solvent is then introduced, carrying the plant molecules away.
Volatile solvent extraction is particularly effective for extracting fragrant compounds from plants, as it allows for the reproduction of the scent of the raw materials with precision. The use of carbon dioxide in its supercritical state (between liquid and gas) as a solvent is environmentally friendly and leaves no trace of itself in the final product. This allows for a more faithful reproduction of the original scent, as the fragrance is not altered by heat.
Solvent extraction is also used to extract fragrant oils from concretes, which are highly fragrant but too viscous or solid at room temperature due to the presence of high-molecular-weight, non-fragrant waxes and resins. Ethyl alcohol, which only dissolves low-molecular-weight compounds, is used to extract the fragrant oil, and a second distillation removes the alcohol, leaving behind the absolute. This process is used to extract fragrant oils from plants such as jasmine and rose.
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Headspace: A method to capture the scent of objects using a domed airtight container
Headspace technology is a sustainable and eco-friendly method of capturing the scent of objects, particularly those that are delicate or rare, using a domed airtight container.
The technique was developed in the 1980s to identify the odour compounds present in the air surrounding objects, particularly fragrant ones such as plants, flowers, and foods. It is named after the apparatus it employs, which resembles a bell jar or a dome and is placed over the object to form an airtight seal. This method is clean, rapid, and non-destructive, making it an appealing alternative to traditional extraction methods, which often involve cutting or damaging the source. For example, the scent of a rose has been shown to change after it is cut, so headspace technology ensures the authentic scent is captured.
Once the airtight seal is formed, the odour compounds are analysed and sent to a lab, where the scent can be recreated using synthetic molecules. This process is often used on flowers or materials that are difficult or impossible to extract through traditional methods, such as rare plants, as it does not require any temperature changes or chemical treatments.
Headspace technology has been used to capture the scent of various locations and environments, such as tea shops, classrooms, and saw mills, and it can even capture specific moments, like the smell of the sea or a bakery shop. This technique allows perfumers to recreate complex fragrances, such as the scent of gardenia, by replicating the molecules present and their proportions.
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Frequently asked questions
There are five different methods of perfume extraction: Expression, Distillation, Enfleurage, Volatile solvent extraction, and Supercritical CO2 extraction.
Expression is a mechanical extraction process where raw materials are pressed, squeezed, or compressed to collect essential oils. This method is only used on citrus fruits.
Distillation is a process where botanical materials are heated, and their essential oils are evaporated with the steam. The compounds are then collected through the condensation of the distilled vapour.
Enfleurage is a traditional method of manufacturing perfumes based on the use of a fatty substance and its ability to naturally absorb odours.
Solvent extraction is a popular method for extracting delicate and heat-sensitive aromatic compounds, particularly from flowers. The raw material is mixed with a solvent, and the solvent dissolves the aromatic compounds, along with waxes and pigments.
