Katrina Rosales
The history of perfume is a rich and ancient one, with the word 'perfume' derived from the Latin 'per fumus', meaning 'through smoke'. The art of perfumery is believed to have originated in ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, the Indus Valley, and China, with the earliest writings about fragrant ingredients found in China and dated to around 4500 BC. Ancient civilisations such as the Egyptians, Greeks, Romans, Persians, and Arabs all played a significant role in the development of perfumery, with the world's first recorded chemist, Tapputi, being a woman who developed perfume-making techniques in Mesopotamia around 1200 BCE. Perfumes were often made from precious and exotic ingredients, including spices, resins, woods, flowers, and herbs, and were used for a variety of purposes, from religious ceremonies to medicine and personal fragrance. Today, the modern perfumery industry continues to innovate, with scientific advances allowing for the creation of synthetic compounds and fragrances that were previously unattainable from natural sources.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Etymology | The word "perfume" is derived from the Latin word "per fumus", meaning "through smoke" |
| Origin | Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia, Indus Valley, China, Western Asia |
| Ancient Users | Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Indus Valley Civilization, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Persians, Arabs, Indians |
| Ancient Uses | Religious ceremonies, burial preparations, daily wear, medicine, aromatherapy, incense, purification, protection from disease |
| Ancient Ingredients | Resins, woods, fir, myrtle, spices, fragrant woods, scented plants, cinnamon, cassia, myrrh, frankincense, lotus, honey, juniper, lily, rose, jasmine, cardamom, balsam, serpent skin |
| Ancient Figures | Tapputi (first recorded chemist and perfume maker), Pliny the Elder, Egyptian Queen Hatsheput, Al-Kindi, Avicenna, Marie Antoinette, Jean-Louis Fargeon |
| Modern Developments | Synthetic compounds, aroma compounds (e.g. vanillin, coumarin), synthetic musks, synthetic aromatics, commercial synthesis, concentration variations, pairing with lighter eau de toilette |
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What You'll Learn
Ancient Egypt
The use of perfume originated in Western Asia and was further refined by the Arabs, Persians, and Romans. However, it was in ancient Egypt that the use of perfume became famous.
The ancient Egyptians were renowned throughout the ancient world for their perfumes. The first perfumers were Egyptian priests, who used aromatic resins such as frankincense, myrrh, and benzoin to create scented mixtures for sacrificial offerings and to scent the temples. They also burned incense, believing it connected them with the gods and pleased the deities. The ancient Egyptians had a lot of divinity linked with smell and perfume, worshipping several patrons of fragrance, including Chesmou, the deity of perfume production, Merehet, the goddess of unguents, and Nefertum, the god of the lotus blossom.
The ancient Egyptians also used perfumes in their daily lives. The rich elites of Egyptian society, male and female alike, adorned themselves with aromas like lily to denote their status. They also used fragrant oils for wellness and as cosmetics. They believed in the power of scent to evoke feelings and bring back memories.
Perfumes were also an important part of burial preparations. Egyptians believed that certain scents symbolised rebirth and regeneration and were therefore used in the mummification process. Archaeologists have discovered perfumes in Egyptian tombs, including an alabaster jar containing the perfume of the young king in Tutankhamun's tomb.
The ancient Egyptians' use of perfume was so significant that it even played a role in their Book of the Dead. Spell 125 forbids one to speak unless he is "clean, dressed in fresh clothes, shod in white sandals, painted with eye-paint, anointed with the finest oil of myrrh." This highlights the importance of perfume in ancient Egyptian culture, both in their daily lives and in their religious practices.
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Mesopotamia
The use of perfume in Mesopotamia dates back thousands of years. Hieroglyphics in Egyptian tombs indicate that the Mesopotamians were making perfume around 3,000 BC. The oldest perfumery discovered so far was on the island of Cyprus, with evidence of an enormous factory dating back 4,000 years to the Bronze Age. This suggests that perfume manufacturing was already occurring on an industrial scale.
The world's first recorded chemist and perfumer was a woman from Mesopotamia named Tapputi (or Tapputibeletekallim). She lived around 1,200 BC and served as an overseer of the Mesopotamian Royal Palace. Tapputi developed methods for scent extraction that laid the foundation for future perfume-making. She recorded her techniques and formulas on clay tablets, which were later discovered by archaeologists. Using these records, modern scientists have been able to recreate her ancient perfumes. Tapputi's perfumes were made from a combination of flowers, oils, calamus, Cyperus, myrrh, horseradish, spices, balsam, and other ingredients. She would mix these with water or solvents, distil them, and then filter the product multiple times to create a purer, more pleasant-smelling fragrance.
In Mesopotamia, perfume was used for both spiritual and social purposes. It was employed in temples to honour the gods and goddesses, and it also served as a status symbol, reserved for the elite and important ceremonies. The use of fragrances elevated one's social rank and improved personal hygiene, which was highly valued in Mesopotamian society. Additionally, perfumes were believed to have therapeutic virtues and could be used for seduction and attraction.
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Indus Valley
The art of making perfumes, or perfumery, is believed to have originated in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley civilisation, and possibly Ancient China. The earliest known botanical perfumes date back to ancient Egypt, where plants were crushed and infused directly into a base oil.
In the Indus Valley, perfume and perfumery existed in the Indus civilisation from 3300 BCE to 1300 BCE. Archaeologists have uncovered evidence of perfume-making in the region, including a distillation apparatus made of terracotta dating back to around 3000 BCE. This apparatus was used to isolate fragrant oils through steam distillation, a practice that is still followed today. Excavations at the site of Harappa have also yielded vessels made of terracotta with plugged orifices that could be used to store fragrant oils.
The existence of fragrant substances such as perfumes was integral to the lives of the people of the Indus Valley Civilisation. This is evident from scriptures and literature, such as the Brihat-Samhita written by Varāhamihira, an Indian astronomer, mathematician, and astrologer living in the city of Ujjain. The text mentions the manufacture of perfumes for 'royal personages'.
Evidence of the use of aromatics and natural essences in the Indus Valley Civilisation can also be found from the Vedic period. Shlokas or chants refer to deities as sugandhim or the 'fragrant one', indicating the importance of fragrance in the spiritual realm. The Atharvaveda also contains mentions of perfumed ointments and fragrant plants like khas (vetiver) and kushtha (costus root).
In addition to the archaeological and literary evidence, the discovery of the world's oldest surviving perfumes in Pyrgos, Cyprus, further supports the presence of perfumery in the Indus Valley Civilisation. These perfumes, discovered in an ancient perfumery, date back more than 4,000 years and contain extracts of lavender, bay leaf, rosemary, and pine.
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China
The use of perfume in China has a rich history. It is believed that perfumery originated in Western Asia and was further refined by the Arabs, Persians, and Romans before reaching the West. Ancient China, along with Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the Indus Valley civilization, is considered one of the earliest centers of perfumery.
In ancient China, perfumes were commonly used in religious rituals and to scent places of worship. The Chinese believed that perfumes could purify spaces and protect them from diseases. This belief is reflected in the Taoist notion that the extraction of a plant's fragrance liberated the soul of the plant itself. The use of incense, known as "xiang" or "xiangdao," played a significant role in Chinese civilization, with the burning of fragrances believed to nourish the spirit and the mind.
Perfumes were also used in daily life, particularly by the nobility and upper classes. During the Sui and Song dynasties, noble and wealthy individuals used perfumes for personal grooming, and fragrance reached its height of popularity during the Yuan, Ming, and Qing dynasties. The ancient Chinese believed that scented products elevated their quality of life, and they surrounded themselves with aromatic items in their homes. They also used naturally aromatic products like agarwood and traded ingredients via the Silk Road.
However, the Chinese perfume industry underwent a significant change during the Cultural Revolution. Maoist doctrine deemed the wearing of perfume as a symbol of "bourgeois decadence," and it was even illegal at one point. As a result, the traditional Chinese perfume industry declined after 1967, and the market became dominated by Western fragrance companies. Today, while Western perfumes hold a significant market share in China, traditional fragrances like "chen xiang" or agarwood continue to be valued for their prestige and luxury.
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Romans
The Romans may not have invented perfume, but they did innovate by creating different fragrant items. They gave perfume its name, 'perfumare', which in Latin means "to smoke through". The Romans were influenced by the Greeks and later by Eastern traditions. They imported exotic essences and spices from conquered territories such as Egypt, Persia, and India, which contributed to a wide range of fragrances used in various social and religious contexts.
Perfumes were used for both practical and ceremonial purposes. They were considered a symbol of luxury and wealth, and in an era where luxury and refinement were synonymous with status and prestige, perfumes became indispensable. Emperors and the Roman aristocracy were known for their generous use of fragrances during banquets and ceremonies. They were also used during public celebrations, with the air saturated with perfumes distributed through special incense burners, creating an atmosphere of luxury and festivity.
The Romans used a variety of natural materials to create perfumes, including flowers, resins, and spices. Flowers were particularly prized for their sweet and floral notes, with the rose being one of the most popular ingredients. It was used in skin perfumes and bath products. Other popular flowers included violets, lilies, and irises. Spices such as cinnamon, cassia, and saffron added warm and exotic notes to fragrances, with saffron being considered a luxury ingredient. Resins like myrrh and incense were used for their fragrance, as well as their spiritual and medicinal properties. They were often burned during religious rites to purify the environment and honour the gods.
Herbal aromas were also common in Roman perfumes, with herbs like basil, mint, and sage adding freshness and vitality to compositions. These ingredients were macerated in oils or alcohol to extract aromatic essences, which were then blended by perfumers to create unique and personalised scents. The Romans were also pioneers in the use of home diffusers, using incense burners and diffusers made from precious materials like bronze and silver to scent their homes and public spaces.
The use of perfume extended to all social classes, although there were obvious differences in the quality and quantity of essences used. Roman women, for example, used perfume in their hair for an overpowering burst of fragrance. The Romans' dedication to perfumes was so ingrained in their culture that Pliny the Elder wrote extensively about the essences and perfumery techniques of the time.
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Frequently asked questions
The word 'perfume' is derived from the Latin word 'per fumus', which means 'through smoke'.
The first recorded chemist and perfumer was a woman named Tapputi, who lived in Mesopotamia around 1200 BCE. She was an overseer of the Mesopotamian Royal Palace and developed methods for scent extraction that would become the basis for perfume-making.
Perfume was used by the ancient Egyptians, Mesopotamians, Indians, Chinese, Greeks, Romans, Arabs, and Persians.
The knowledge of perfume-making was brought to medieval Europe by the Romans and early Arab and Persian pharmacists. Perfume-making became popular in the royal courts of 17th-century France, England, and Italy. The British Empire's global trade routes also brought exotic spices and ingredients to perfumers, leading to the birth of the modern world of perfume.
