Seamus Hammond
The science behind perfume is complex and fascinating. Humans have been creating fragrances for thousands of years, dating back to the Bronze Age. The process of perfume-making has evolved from basic distillations of plants and essential oils to a global multi-billion dollar industry. Contemporary perfumes contain a multitude of ingredients, including essential oils, synthetic chemicals, fixatives, and solvents. When applied to the skin, perfumes unfold in three parts: top notes, heart notes, and base notes, each with its unique evaporation rate and contribution to the overall fragrance. Personal body chemistry also plays a crucial role in how a perfume smells, with factors like skin type, temperature, and oiliness influencing the scent's expression. Understanding the intricate interplay between perfume notes and individual chemistry is key to finding the perfect fragrance.
| Characteristics | Values |
|---|---|
| Etymology | The word "perfume" is derived from the Latin "perfumare", meaning "to smoke through". |
| History | The use of perfumes dates back to ancient civilisations in Mesopotamia, Egypt, the Indus Valley, and possibly Ancient China. |
| Modern perfumery began in the late 19th century with the commercial synthesis of aroma compounds. | |
| Ingredients | Perfumes typically contain essential oils, aroma compounds (fragrances), fixatives, and solvents. |
| Essential oils can be derived from natural plant extracts or synthetic aromatic chemicals. | |
| Fixatives are used to reduce evaporation rate, increase perceived odour strength, and improve stability. | |
| The typical solvent solution is 98% ethanol and 2% water. | |
| Fragrance Concentration | The intensity and longevity of a fragrance depend on the concentration of aromatic compounds. |
| Parfum or Extrait (P) typically contains 15-40% aromatic compounds. | |
| Scent Profile | Perfumes can have a wide range of scent profiles, including floral, fruity, musky, spicy, etc. |
| Olfactory Experience | Anthropologists have found that there are fewer words to describe olfactory experiences compared to other sensations. |
| The use of musical metaphors and references to odor-producing objects (e.g. floral, fruity) are common in describing perfumes. | |
| Body Chemistry | Skin texture, workout regimen, and body temperature can influence how perfume reacts to the body and its scent. |
| Applying perfume to pulse points, such as wrists, neck, and backs of knees, can enhance the scent. | |
| Pheromones | Pheromones are biological scents that can evoke a response in members of the same species, such as attraction. |
| Pheromone perfumes aim to recreate or enhance natural body pheromones to increase sexual attraction. | |
| Subjectivity | The scents considered sexy, desirable, or pleasant vary from person to person and can be influenced by olfactory memory. |
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What You'll Learn
The human sense of smell
Firstly, it is important to understand that our sense of smell is closely linked to our memory and emotional responses. Olfactory memories are powerful and long-lasting, and certain scents can evoke strong emotional reactions. This is because the olfactory bulb, which is responsible for processing smells, is located near the areas of the brain that control memory and emotion. As a result, we often associate certain smells with specific memories or feelings. For example, the scent of vanilla might evoke feelings of warmth and comfort for some people, while others might find it overpowering or unpleasant.
The human nose is incredibly sensitive and can detect a vast array of different odours. We are able to distinguish between different smells due to the presence of olfactory receptors in our noses, which are specialized cells that detect odour molecules in the air. These receptors then send signals to the brain, which interprets the information as specific smells. It is estimated that humans have around 400 types of olfactory receptors, allowing us to perceive a diverse range of scents.
The language of perfume is often described in musical terms, with notes, chords, and harmonies. This is partly due to the aesthetic relationship between perfume and music, but also because there is a lack of specific vocabulary to describe olfactory experiences. Anthropological studies have found that across all languages, there are fewer words dedicated to describing smells compared to other sensory experiences. This may be why we often borrow terms from other senses, such as describing the smell of chocolate as "sweet" or grass as "green".
Our sense of smell is also influenced by our individual biology and chemistry. Each person has a unique body chemistry, and this affects how a perfume will smell on them. Factors such as skin texture, body temperature, and even workout routines can impact the way a perfume interacts with our bodies and how it smells. For example, dry skin may not hold perfume scents as well, and increased body temperature can intensify the projection of a fragrance.
Additionally, our sense of smell is closely tied to our sense of taste. When we eat or drink, odour molecules are released and detected by our olfactory receptors, contributing to our perception of flavour. This is why we often use taste-related terms to describe smells, such as "fruity" or "floral".
In conclusion, the human sense of smell is a multifaceted and highly individual sensory experience. It is influenced by our memories, emotions, biology, and the complex interplay of scent molecules. By understanding how our sense of smell works, we can better appreciate the art of perfumery and find fragrances that truly resonate with us.
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How perfumes are made
The process of making perfume has evolved over the years, but the basic principles remain the same. Perfumes are made by extracting scented oils from natural ingredients, such as plants, fruits, woods, and even animal secretions. Other resources like alcohol, coal, tars, and petrochemicals are also used during the manufacturing process.
There are six methods to extract oils from plants: steam distillation, boiling, solvent extraction, enfleurage, maceration, and expression. In steam distillation, steam passes through the plant material, turning the essential oil into gas, which is then cooled and liquefied. The boiling process involves extracting oils by boiling flower petals in water. Solvent extraction involves placing flowers in large rotating tanks and pouring benzene or petroleum ether over them to extract the essential oils. In enfleurage, flowers are laid on a layer of fat, which absorbs the scent, and then the scented fat is washed with alcohol to extract the fragrance. Maceration involves soaking the raw materials in oil or alcohol for a long period. Finally, expression is a traditional method where the ingredients are pressed until all the oils are extracted.
After the extraction of oils, the perfume concentrate is diluted in alcohol, and the mixture is left undisturbed in a cool, dark area for up to a month. This process of maturing the fragrance is followed by ageing, which can take several months to a year. Ageing allows the alcohol and essential oils to permanently bond, and the different scents to blend together. After ageing, an expert tests the scent, and adjustments are made if needed. The final product should have three distinct notes: a top note, a central or heart note, and a base note.
The use of synthetic chemicals has become common in the perfume industry. Synthetic scents are used to emulate fragrances that are hard to find in nature or do not produce essential oils. Synthetic compounds can also make the production process faster and more affordable.
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Notes and their evaporation rates
The fragrance pyramid is a triangular structure that helps us visualise a perfume's composition in terms of its scent notes. The three sections of the pyramid are the top, middle or heart, and bottom or base notes. These sections also act as a timer, indicating how long each note section lasts on the skin. Perfumes are crafted so that different notes emerge at different times, with each note having a unique evaporation rate.
Top notes, also known as head notes, are the first thing we smell when we open a bottle of perfume or during the first few minutes after application. They consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly and form our initial impression of a perfume. Citrus and ginger scents are common top notes.
Middle notes, also called heart notes, emerge just as the top notes dissipate. They are the main body of the perfume, often masking the initial sharp impact of the base notes. These notes are what you are likely to remember about the perfume. If it's a floral perfume, for instance, the flowery smells are usually found in the middle notes.
Base notes, also referred to as soul notes, appear close to the departure of the middle notes. They bring depth and solidity to a perfume and consist of large, heavy molecules that evaporate slowly. Compounds of this class are often used as fixatives to hold and boost the strength of the lighter top and middle notes, influencing the molecular interactions and changing the evaporation rate of the other notes. Base notes are usually not perceived until 30 minutes after application or during the period of perfume dry-down. Musky, watery, mossy and woody chemicals often go in the base.
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Body chemistry and perfume
The unique chemistry of a person's body can significantly impact how a perfume smells on them. This is known as "fragrance individuality" or "scent variation", where a person's body odour, skin oils, and sweat production influence how a scent will be experienced.
An individual's skin type, which can be categorised as oily, dry, combination, sensitive, or normal, plays a crucial role in how a perfume interacts with their body. For instance, oily skin can trap scent molecules, enhancing the smell and prolonging its duration. On the other hand, dry skin may require a lighter perfume that won't overpower the wearer but will still have a subtle presence.
Additionally, a person's diet can alter their body chemistry and affect their natural body odour. Foods like garlic or onion, which contain sulphur-like compounds, can lead to stronger body odour and sharper undertones when mixed with perfume. Similarly, alcohol and spicy foods can also impact body odour and, consequently, the scent of perfume on the skin.
The pH level of the skin is another factor that contributes to body chemistry. The skin's surface tends to be slightly acidic, but this balance can be disrupted by conditions such as eczema, kidney disease, or diabetes. Understanding one's skin pH can aid in selecting fragrances that complement the skin's natural chemistry.
When choosing a perfume, it is recommended to test it on the wrist and observe how it interacts with your unique body chemistry over a few hours. This can help prevent wasting money on fragrances that may not suit your individual scent profile.
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History of perfume
The word "perfume" comes from the Latin phrase "per fumum", meaning "through smoke". The French later gave the name "parfum" to the smells produced by burning incense. The first form of perfume was incense, made by the Mesopotamians about 4,000 years ago. Ancient cultures burned a variety of resins and wood in their religious ceremonies.
Perfume-making soon spread to Egypt around 3000 BC, but it was initially only used in religious rituals. It became more widely available to all Egyptians as time went on. Citizens took elaborate baths and soaked their skin in scented oils for pleasure. The ancient Egyptians also made perfumes by distilling natural ingredients with non-scented oils. The most popular scents were floral, woody, and fruity.
The ancient Greeks can be credited with creating the first liquid perfume. However, it was the development of distillation by the Arabs that made perfume manufacture viable. The variety of scents increased as the Arabs expanded their trade routes west. The ancient Persians were also highly skilled in perfume-making, ruling the perfume trade for hundreds of years and credited as the inventors of non-oil-based perfumes.
The beginning of modern-day perfumery is often said to have commenced during the Renaissance in Italy, particularly in Florence. France eventually became the epicentre of scent, with Grasse in the south of France providing the ideal growing conditions for important perfume ingredients such as roses and jasmine.
In the 19th century, changing tastes and developments in chemistry laid the foundations for modern perfumery. Chanel No. 5 was the first perfume created by applying modern chemical principles and the first to contain synthetics.
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Frequently asked questions
Perfume is a mixture of essential oils and/or synthetic aromatic chemicals, fixatives, and solvents. Perfumes are designed to deliver a pleasant aroma.
Perfumes are designed to have a three-part smell, which unfolds after you apply it to your skin. The smell unfolds in the form of notes, which is jargon for an individual smell. The varying evaporation rates of different molecules in a perfume mean that it will not smell the same when it is first put on as it does later.
Top notes consist of small, light molecules that evaporate quickly. Heart or middle notes appear after the top notes have dissipated, and they evaporate more slowly. Base notes appear while the middle notes are fading and consist of large, heavy molecules that evaporate slowly.
Personal chemistry plays a role in how perfume smells on different people. Your skin type, temperature, and oiliness can all influence how a perfume smells on your skin.
When applying perfume, spread it but do not rub it in vigorously, as the heat will evaporate the top notes and weaken the overall smell. It's best to put perfume on your pulse points, like your wrists, neck, and the backs of your knees.
